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Ch 3: Managing FAW

The most promising options for the management of FAW by African smallholders are presented below, building on experiences from the Americas and latest research available in Africa, reflecting IPM strategies. These can be tested out in FFS as appropriate.

Seeds and varieties

Seed treatment might prevent early damage of the seedlings after germination.

Longer-term solutions of resistant or tolerant maize varieties might have potential, but are several years off.

FAO recognizes that crop improvement through innovative technologies, including both conventional breeding and modern biotechnologies, is an essential approach to achieving sustainable increases in crop productivity and thus contributes to food security. Scientific evidence has shown that modern biotechnologies offer potential options to improving such aspects as the yield and quality, resource use efficiency, resistance to biotic and abioticstresses, and the nutritional value of the crops.

FAO is also aware of the public perception and concerns about the potential risks to human health and the environment associated with genetically modified organisms (GMOs). FAO underlines the need to carefully evaluate the potential benefits and possible risks associated with the application of modern technologies. FAO emphasizes that the responsibility for formulating policies and making decisions regarding these technologies rests with the Member Governments themselves. The responsibility for formulating policies and making decisions regarding GMOs lies with the individual Governments. So FAO does not interfere in the policies or decisions, including those related to GMOs, of its Member Governments and so it has no position regarding the development, testing or commercial release of GMOs in any specific country. On request, FAO provides legal and technical advice to governments on areas such as the development of national biotechnology strategies and the development of biosafety frameworks.

Regarding the potential use of GM (genetically modified) maize to control the FAW in Africa, FAO considers that it is yet too early to draw conclusions. Bt maize has been demonstrated to decrease damage from FAW, but FAW populations in the Americas have evolved resistance to some Bt maize varieties.

Nevertheless, more work still needs to be done including conducting trials and collecting data. It must be kept in mind that the Bt maize grown currently in some parts of Africa is used primarily for controlling the maize stem borer insect and not FAW.

Maize has been genetically engineered by incorporating genes from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that produce insecticidal proteins that kill important crop pests. The use of Bt maize has resulted in some cases in reduced insecticide use, pest suppression, conservation of beneficial natural enemies and higher farmer profits. However, such benefits may be short-lived. Insect populations are able to adapt to Bt proteins through the evolution of resistance. Despite efforts to delay the selection for resistance, many cases of field resistance evolution among maize pests have been demonstrated in Bt maize, including in the Fall Armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) in the Americas, and in South Africa in the maize stem borer (Busseola fusca).

While transgenic maize has provided some transitory benefits to commercial maize farmers, the context for the vast majority of African maize farmers is quite different. Over 98 percent of maize farmers in Africa are smallholders, growing maize on less than 2 ha of land and typically saving seed to plant the next crop. The use of purchased inputs, including seed, is low.

Given the cost of transgenic maize seed, the lack of adequate supply channels, and lack of economic incentives for smallholders to grow such maize (due to the low and volatile prices received), there is currently a low probability that the technology would be used in a sustainable manner by smallholder maize farmers in Africa. Even for commercial maize farmers in Africa, the longterm benefits of transgenic maize were put into doubt when, within two years of deployment, maize stem borers began to show resistance to Bt maize in South Africa.

Crop management

Management of FAW in maize fields begins with prevention.

Planting dates: avoid late planting, and avoid staggered planting (i.e. planting of fields at different dates in the same area), as this would continue to provide the favoured food of FAW locally (i.e. young maize plants). This is one of the most important recommendations for smallholders. In line with this, in January 2018 some FFS farmers in Kenya reported significant yield losses to FAW on late-planted maize plots, compared to adjacent plots which were planted earlier. See also the FFS Field Study in section B.4.4 on “Effects of planting dates on fall armyworm infestation and yield loss”.

Good soil health and adequate moisture are critical: they are essential to grow healthy plants, which can better withstand pest infestation and damage. Also, unbalanced inorganic fertilization of maize (especially excessive nitrogen use) can increase oviposition by female FAW. See the Box in this section, and the FFS Field Study in section B.4.5 on “Effects of nitrogen fertilization rates and manure on levels of fall armyworm infestation and yield loss”. See references in Bibliography for training material proposing FFS activities on soil health.

The efficacy of managing crop residues to break the life cycle of FAW generations is not well established by research. This practice is also time-consuming; it also runs counter other recommendations to maintain soil cover to improve soil health for sustainable production.

Plant diversity

Diversity on farm reduces Fall Armyworm infestation and supports natural enemies

Another very important aspect of prevention of FAW infestations is by maintaining plant diversity on farms.

Even if many female moths are flying about, if she doesn’t lay her egg masses on maize plants, or if very young larvae don’t move onto maize plants, then the maize won’t be infested by FAW.

FAW moths prefer maize to lay her eggs. In large monocultures of maize, she just flies about, laying her eggs in a sea of maize.

When maize is intercropped with other crops or there are other plants nearby that she doesn’t like, she is more likely to move on, skipping maize plants that may be mixed in with the plants she doesn’t like.

This is the first step in good FAW management – reduce oviposition on maize plants! Farmers in Central America have noticed that when they plant maize together with other crops such as beans and squash (their traditional “milpa” systems), they have less pest attacks.

Agroecologists have documented that polycrops may be effective because of four main reasons or mechanisms:

One possible explanation is that a diversity of plants in the same field confuses FAW, and it is difficult for it to find its preferred host plant (maize), eating less or laying fewer eggs.

Another reason is that the female FAW moth doesn’t “like” certain plants because of the chemicals they emit. These volatile compounds are the “push” effect in push-pull systems, which “push” pest species away from certain plants while they are “pulled” to others because the plant chemicals make them more attractive (see section A.3.3.2 on Push-pull). So planting maize near other plants that “push” FAW moths away is the first step in preventing FAW infestation.

A third possible explanation is that polycropping may provide natural enemies (parasitoids and predators) with resources such as nectar; water; or a place to hide, and those natural enemies will control FAW.

A fourth rationale for the intercropping is that it increases soil organic matter, and in the case of legumes it increases Nitrogen, which improves plant health, making it more able to compensate for FAW damage

We know that especially plants that bear flowers for a long period of time, such as many “weeds” or some medicinal or plants used as condiments, do provide nectar to parasitoids and predators of FAW. In Mesoamerica, plants such as Tagetes lucida, Coriandrum, Sonchus olerace, Ruta and onions, attract beneficial insects.

Suggested experiments on plant diversity on your farm

Try using different maize varieties and/or intercropping maize with other crops (for instance with cassava, which is not a host plant of the FAW)
Observe which plants growing near or in your maize fields are attracting natural enemies, and how you can manage them to reduce FAW populations, without interfering with maize growth.
Consider stimulating the growth of “weedy” plants in certain rows in between the crop, or to grow them around the plot.

Trees are also important for pest management. Trees allow birds to perch, and many birds prey over larvae including FAW. In Africa, many farmers are growing maize in agroforestry systems (MIAF). It could be important to document if the MIAF plots have less FAW attacks than maize grow in a monocrop.

Ch 2: Differentiating the Fall Armyworm from other worms

Other pests of maize are present in Africa which resemble to some degree the FAW. You can differentiate them by learning to identify the worms themselves at their different stages, and the type of damage they produce.

Below are different species of maize stalk borers and their life stages. The most important stem borers pests on maize are Busseola fusca, Chilo partellus and Sesamia calamistis. Busseola fusca is mostly present in the highlands, whereas Chilo partellus is widely present in the lowlands. Sesamia calamistis is present in both low and highlands.

Busseola fusca: A) Egg (not easily visible, between the leaf sheath and stem); B) Larva;
C) Pupa (frequently inside the stem); D) Adult (not easily visible, flying over at night). Photos: Calatayud P.-A.

Chilo partellus: A) Egg (on maize leaves); B) Larva; C) Pupa (frequently inside the stem); D) Adult (not easily visible, flying over at night). Photos: Calatayud P.-A.

Sesamia calamistis: A) Egg (not easily visible, between the leaf sheath and stem); B) Larva;
C) Pupa (frequently inside the stem); D) Adults: male top; female bottom (not easily visible, flying over at night). Photos: Calatayud P.-A. and icipe.

The main differences between stem borer infestation and FAW infestation are:

the big holes left by the FAW. Generally, “big holes” as observed for FAW are not present in stemborers attacks (for both young and old larvae)

the stem borer damage is characterized by a typical dead heart which is easy to see when the maize is young (Photo Series 2D)

when stem borers larvae are getting old, they are less present in the whorl contrary to FAW; but they can be found in the maize stem, leaving holes in the stems with visible frass

Photo series 1: Some leaf damage symptoms caused by the Fall Armyworm
A) Leaves with windowing and shot holes caused by early instars of FAW;
B) Extensive defoliation of leaves with fresh frass in the whorl, note the absence of dead heart; C) Defoliation by FAW larvae in the whorl.
*Photos: K. Cressman, Subramanian Sevgan, icipe.*

A & B): Typical damage on the leaves left by young caterpillars when they feed on the leaf surfaces;
C): Hole left by the caterpillars when they are getting older and start boring the maize stem to feed inside the plant’s stems; D): Deadheart caused by the feeding activity of stem borer caterpillars into the
maize stems of young maize plants. *Photos and source: Calatayud P.-A. & Agbodzavu, 2013.*

Ch 1: Biology-ecology and identification of the Fall Armyworm

Key facts

Credits:FAO, CABI,Infonet

Fall Armyworm is an insect native to tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas

It was first detected in Central and Western Africa in early 2016 and has now spread across Sub-Saharan Africa and recently reached Yemen and India

In the larval stage, the insect causes damage to crops, feeding on more than 80 plant species

FAW primarily affects maize, but also rice and sorghum as well as cotton and some vegetables

The moth can fly up to 100 km per night and the female moth can lay up to a total of 1000 eggs in her lifetime

In the Americas, farmers have been managing FAW in their crops for many centuries and researches have been studying it for decades

Sustainable management practices that are used in the Americas need to be to be adapted to countries’ socio-economic-environmental contexts.

Recognizing FAW is the first step for management. The pest is new to Africa, and farmers need to be able to recognize FAW, and distinguish it from other pests. Below are pictures of the different development stages of FAW, from egg to larvae, pupae and adults.

Eggs are pale green or white at the beginning, get covered in scales, and turn clear brown to brown before hatching. They hatch within 2-3 days.

There are 6 larvae stages. Young larvae are pale colored. They become brown to pale green, then turn darker at the latest stages. The larvae stages last 12 to 20 days (depending on ambient temperature and other environmental conditions).

Half-grown or fully grown caterpillars are the easiest to identify. The larvae are generally characterized by
3 yellow stripes on the back, followed by a black, then a yellow stripe on the side. Look out for four dark spots forming a square on the second to last segment (photo). Each spot has a short bristle (hair). The head is dark; it shows a typical upside down Y-shaped pale marking on the front.

The pupa is dark brown and hides in the soil, more rarely in the stalk. Pupa lives 12-14 days before an adult emerges.

The moth is 3 to 4 cm wide. Its front wings are dark brown while the rear wings are grey white. It will live 2 to 3 weeks before dying

Photo Credits © James Castner, University of Florida; © James Castner, University of Florida; © Paulo Lanzetta/Embrapa/Documentos, 344; © J. Obermeyer; © Calatayud P.-A.; © Lyle J. Buss, University of Florida.

The Fall Armyworm lifecycle includes egg, 6 growth stages of caterpillar development (instars), pupa and moth.

This diagram illustrates the lifecycle, showing where the Fall Armyworm is usually found on maize plants at any given stage.

Day 1-3

100-200 eggs are generally laid on the underside of the leaves typically near the base of the plant, close to the junction of the leaf and the stem. These are covered in protective scales rubbed off from the moths abdomen after laying.

When populations are high then the eggs may be laid higher up the plants or on nearby vegetation.

Day 3-6

GROWTH STAGES 1-3

After hatching the young caterpillars feed superficially, usually on the undersides of leaves. Feeding results in semitransparent patches on the leaves called windows.

Young caterpillars can spin silken threads which catch the wind and transport the caterpillars to a new plant.

The leaf whorl is preferred in young plants, whereas the leaves around the cob silks are attractive in older plants.

Feeding is more active during the night.

Day 6-14

GROWTH STAGES 4-6

By stage 3-6 it will have reached the protective region of the whorl, where it does the most damage, resulting in ragged holes in the leaves.

Feeding on young plants can kill the growing point resulting in no new leaves or cobs developing.

Often only 1 or 2 caterpillars found in each whorl, as they become cannibalistic when larger and will eat each other to reduce competition for food. Large quantities of frass (caterpillar poo) present. When this dries it resembles sawdust.

If the plant is older and has already developed
cobs then the caterpillar will eat its way through
the protective leaf bracts into the side of the cob where it begins to feed on the developing
kernels (seeds). After approximately 14 days the fully grown caterpillar will drop to the ground.

The caterpillar will then burrow 2-8 cm into the soil before pupating.

The loose silk oval shape cocoon is 20-30 mm in length.

If the soil is too hard then the caterpillar will cover itself in leaf debris before pupating. After approximately 8-9 days the adult moth emerges to restart the cycle.

Under warm conditions, a female moth can lay 6 to 10 egg masses of 100 to 300 eggs each, giving a maximum of 1 500 to 2 000 eggs in her lifetime of 2-3 weeks. As for other pests, most eggs will not develop into adults due to mortality in different parts of the lifecycle.

In tropical America, FAW is an established pest, and outbreaks in which populations reach densities that can cause important damage are rare. Natural enemies keep FAW populations at low levels under normal circumstances, and smallholder farmers have learnt to manage the pest. However, FAW populations do increase rapidly when area of maize cultivation expand. This is what the FAW population mostly respond to.

In Africa, FAW infestations are occurring in “outbreak” style in many maize-production areas – i.e. large populations of the pest are found in the fields and cause damage. As the pest is new to Africa, natural enemies are still rare, though some local species seem to be able to feed on FAW and reduce its populations. It is possible that FAW is now reaching “peak” levels in Africa. Within a few years, as natural enemy populations catch up and spread, a lower equilibrium population of FAW could be present in Africa. It is therefore important to preserve and enhance natural enemy populations in Africa. Unlike FAW in the Americas, or the African Armyworm (AAW), FAW in sub-Saharan Africa may not develop a migratory pattern. Most likely, given our understanding ofthe pest in the Americas, we expect that FAW populations will be resident over much of Sub-Saharan Africa, surviving on maize and on other plants during periods without maize; but in some cooler or drier areas, it may become migratory. We just don’t know for now.

Feeding behaviour and damage: In the lifecycle graph on the next page, more information is provided on the different stages of FAW, and where to find them on the plant.

Although FAW larvae can feed on more than 80 species of plants, they prefer maize, as well as, rice, cotton, groundnut, sorghum and vegetables.

The favourite spot of the caterpillar stage of the FAW is curled up in the whorl of a maize plant, where it feels protected and chews and grows on its favourite food – tender, young maize leaves. As they chew away, the leaves continue to grow out, leaving ragged, half-chewed leaves that are typical of FAW- infested maize fields.

Sometimes, but much less often, FAW can act as a young plant cuter, if high populations of the caterpillar are present on weeds or other host plants in fields adjacent to newly- planted maize fields. This Armyworm-like action by FAW is rare, but can occur. At very high population levels FAW can also penetrate maize ears, causing direct damage to the harvest. But again, this is rarer than the typical behaviour of burrowing down into the whorl to eat leaves.

8 to 14 days old larvae can cause severe damage to maize plants, especially when the growing points of young plants are eaten. Early vegetative-stage FAW infestation can cause more leaf damage and yield losses than late vegetative stage infestation. Fortunately, maize plants can significantly recover (compensate) from early growth stage damage on leaves and short duration defoliation. When the FAW population is high on a plant, the adult larvae might occasionally move to the tassel and the ears, reducing the quality of the produce at harvest.

Heavy rains can wash young larvae off leaves, and drown those in the whorl.

Ch 1: Why we need Pollinators

“One in three bites of food is thanks to a pollinator”

When a flower is pollinated it can produce seeds, and fruits. Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anthers to the stigma of a flower. Plants rely on wind, water, or animals called pollinators to move pollen between different flowers. In this way flowers can produce more seeds, and fruits.

Pollination, is an often overlooked ‘ecosystem service’. An ecosystem service is a benefit that is provided free by healthy environments that is essential to the wellbeing of people.

People find in the environment resources like water, food, fodder, and fuel. Through natural processes in the environment, ecosystem services also serve us with:

Habitats for people, plants, and animals
Water storing, and cleaning
Soils that can support plant and animal life
Interactions like pollination

Pollinators provide a vital link with nature supporting human life, and subsistence. In Africa pollinators are primarily insects that travel between farms and natural habitats, and are extremely vulnerable to habitat loss, and destruction.

Small species-rich habitats, such as forest patches, hedgerows, strips of wildflowers and grasses, and fallow land need to be conserved to save pollinators.

The future of so many of these habitats relies upon rural farmers who need to be engaged as partners in conservation. The beauty of pollination is that it draws a strong and clear link between livelihoods, sustainability, and the protection of the environment. Working with farmers to foster an understanding of pollinators, and habitats, directly contributes to improving food security, and alleviating poverty through increased yields.

Once we recognize that something as fundamental as food production is tied to biodiversity, we can begin to tap into the great potential there is to do this in ways that directly improve human health, and nutrition. The recent global die- offs of honeybees for example, have shown the dangers of relying on just one species given the staggering diversity of just bees.

The decline of biodiversity is accelerating at a grim pace, just as we are beginning to learn about the intricate connections between nature, human life, and livelihoods. We stand to lose the very species, and interactions that underpin our subsistence, and the life support systems of our planet.

Blessed with some of the most diverse habitats on the planet, conservation in East Africa is up against the huge challenge of producing food for a growing population. We need to do this without sacrificing nature, and ecological processes.

The threats to pollinators however, don’t just come from habitat destruction. The growing misuse of pesticides, for example, is a very real threat. In this case, there is hope that we can actually get it right here in Africa. We can prevent misuse by disseminating information about how chemicals affect wild insects, and what can be done to limit exposure. By carefully managing the use of pesticides we protect not just pollinators, but soils, streams, and human communities too.

In many parts of Kenya you can easily find over 100 bee species in a given landscape. Bees, and other pollinators are beautiful and fascinating—worth studying in their own right, offering us much pleasure.

Spend time outdoors watching bees, and other pollinators. Indeed, the main goal of this book is to inspire people across East Africa to get more engaged–watching, studying, appreciating, and conserving pollinators–on farms, gardens, villages, and protected areas.

Many of the crops we grow are dependent on wild insects pollinators.

“One in three bites of food
is thanks to a pollinator”

Ch 21: Photos of pollinators around the world

Location: Zurich
*Photo Credit: Wam K Dennler*

Ladybird larva
Location: Zurich
*Photo Credit: Wam K Dennler*

Ladybird
Location: Zurich
*Photo Credit: Wam K Dennler*

Ch 15: Pollinators and Pesticides

Pesticides kill pollinators. It is important to
use agricultural chemicals safely and wisely so as not to affect the health of both people and pollinators.

Pesticides present us with a challenge. Most wild pollinators are insects, and pesticides are substances designed to kill or control insects. Pest control is important in small-scale, and commercial farming systems, yet insects are critical pollinators of our crops.

The application of pesticides must take into account potential negative effects on biodiversity, and especially avoid contact between pesticides, and insect pollinators.This first question to ask is:

Does my crop or plants require pollinators?

If the answer is yes, then there are steps that farmers and gardeners can take to minimize exposure of pollinators to pesticides:

It is essential to read the label and follow instructions carefully.
Find out what is the pesticide toxicity is to bees.
Use the product in accordance with the label instructions— overuse, misuse, and poor disposal of pesticides pose threats to bees, and to human health.
Identify the pollinators that visit your crops!
DO NOT spray when the crop is in flower!
DO NOT spray when insects are visiting the flowers!
Avoid spraying crop field verges, compacted earth sites, sheltered banks!
Know the location of colonies, and aggregated pollinator nest sites, and have a plan for protecting them!
Carefully study pollinator activity throughout the day, from dawn to dusk, to help develop spraying regimes that avoid main foraging periods of wild insect pollinators.

Take into consideration potential exposure of pollinators through pesticide residues on foliage, and in the soil.

Consider reducing your reliance on pesticides, and incorporate other pollinator-friendly methods—often referred to as Integrated Pest Management (IPM).

In IPM you use knowledge about the pest habits and activities, and an understanding of your farm or garden environment, to enable biological pest control.

**Disposal of pesticides/ chemicals.**
Poor disposal of pesticides and other chemicals can contaminate soils and affect ground nesting bees.

Even proper disposal methods as employed here at a French bean farm in Kenya, may still lead to soil contamination.

There is need for more research and support for farmers for proper disposal of containers and unused chemicals.

Monocultures produce a lot of food, but also use a lot of pesticides.
It is important to manage these carefully to reduce drift into
surrounding areas where they can affect pollinators.

A carpenter bee (*Xylocopa*
*inconstans*) on the flowers of pigeonpea in southern Tanzania.
Many crops depend on wild insect pollinators.

Ch 11: Plants for Pollinators

Canola growing at Timau, in north central Kenya.

Trees and shrubs for bees and other pollinators:

Trees

Acacias:
Acacia xanthophloea
Acacia kirkii
Acacia senegal
Acacia tortilis

Note: All indigenous acacias are key resources for pollinators. An abundance and diversity of insects can be found swarming around flowering acacias. Acacia tortilis, and Acacia senegal are just two of many important dryland species.

Albizia spp. These trees flower synchronously, and are an important resource for bees, butterflies, and sunbirds.

Combretum spp. Important in the drylands and savannah, these species are visited by both bees, and flies.

Cordia africana An important tree in highland forest areas for bees, including honeybees, and carpenter bees.

Croton spp. As these trees often flower synchronously they are of considerable significance seasonally.

Croton megalocarpus can grow in many different zones—from forest to river-banks, and bush; it is visited by bees, butterflies, and flies.

Dombeya spp. Used by honeybees, and carpenter bees. In the drylands this tree species is often found on hilltops where it visited by a wide range of insects.

Eucalyptus spp. While these trees can be invasive and use a lot of water, in highlands where they are planted for timber, they support large numbers of honeybees.

Eucalyptus ficifolia is one species that is especially attractive to honeybees.

Maerua spp. These are important nectar sources for hawkmoths, and carpenter bees. Honeybees, and solitary bees also visit them for pollen.

Mangroves Most mangroves have open generalised flowers visited by large numbers of bees. Mangroves species important for honeybees include:Avicennia, Bruguiera, Ceriops, Heritiera, and Rhizophora.

Markhamia lutea One of Kenya’s loveliest flowering trees, its yellow flowers are visited, and pollinated by a wide range of bees including carpenter bees, and larger leafcutter bees.

Melia spp. Very attractive to bees, and butterflies, especially in the drylands.

Milletia dura This species produces large bunches of flowers that can be swarming with bees, including carpenter bees, and leafcutter bees in large numbers.

Moringa oleifera This useful multi-purpose tree is also great for bees, flies, and other pollinators.

Ochna spp. Used by bees primarily, including carpenter bees, and honeybees.

Senna spp. Important for a wide range of bees, and flies. Some specialised bees visit these flowers.

Syzygium spp. Crucial to honeybees especially in the highlands. Also supports carpenter bees, and sunbirds.

Terminalia spp. Supports bees, flies, and other insects in the drylands.

Baobab trees are important resources for bats and other creatures.

*Erythrina lysistemon,* and *E. abyssinica* (illustrated) are important for sunbirds, *Melia* attracts bees.

Acacias (branch illustrated)– are essential for bees, *Maesopsis–*large forest trees like this also support a lot of insects.

Fig trees–need fig wasps, and also support other species.

SHRUBS & CREEPERS

Acacia brevispica Acacia mellifera Acacia drepanolobium

Acacia brevispica Acacia mellifera Acacia drepanolobium–Acacia mellifera is one of the most important nectar species for honeybees, and produces a light and creamy, delicious honey. All shrubby acacias support large numbers of bees, butterflies, wasps, and flies. Their open flowers make it easy for insects to access nectar and pollen.

Abutilon spp. These are important plants whose flowers open and close depending on the light, and warmth. Amegilla bees, and longhorn bees (Tetraloniella and Tetralonia spp.) visit these plants.

Aloe spp. Aloes are important for sunbirds, butterflies, moths, and bees. Most aloe species have evolved to be pollinated by sunbirds, and butterflies. Many different bees collect pollen from aloes, and several species nest in the pithy old flowering stems.

Aspilia spp. A good source of pollen for many bees, this species is attractive to both bees and butterflies.

Caesalpinia decapetala Flowering at the edges of forest, woodland and rivers, this species is favoured by carpenter bees, and other large-bodied bees.

Calotropis spp. Very important for a number of different bees, wasps, and butterflies, in dryland and arid areas. The pollen is formed into pollinia that attach to the legs of visiting bees, and wasps, and virtually impossible to remove once they are in place!

Dichrostachyscinerea A shrub that is often found in overgrazed areas, it supports a wide range of solitary bees, and wasps.

Dodonaea angustifolia This is a species that flowers seasonally, and is visited by flies, and large numbers of honeybees.

Dovyalis spp. Commonly known as kei-apple, and used as a hedgerow species, the flowers are very attractive to both bees, and flies.

Euphorbia spp. The succulent euphorbias are sometimes the only plant that might be flowering in arid locations, or at periods of drought. Important to a wide range of insects, a single flowering euphorbia could easily have over one hundred different insects swarming about it.

Thriving area of natural habitat in Laikipia, Kenya.

Grewia spp. One of the most important bee plants. It is visited by carpenter bees, and a large number of other solitary bee species.

Hibiscus spp. Visited by a wide range of bees, especially in dryland and arid areas.

Ipomoea spp. These mass-flowering creepers can paint the entire landscape in colour. Many different bees visit the flowers including some like Systropha spp. that are specialised on collecting Ipomoea pollen almost exclusively.

Lantanaspp. While Lantanacamarais a serious invasive that should not be planted, indigenous Lantana trifolia is especially attractive to butterflies, and bees.

Rhus spp. Shrubs that are visited by bees, and flies.

Rubus spp. Visited and pollinated by honeybees, hoverflies, and some solitary bees.

Scutia myrtina When in flower they are very attractive to a number of bees, and large numbers of wasps, and flies.

Sesbania spp. These legumes are attractive to carpenter bees, and other solitary bees. They can be cultivated at farm edges to encourage pollinators to visit.

Ziziphus spp. Seasonally flowering, they are visited by large numbers of flies, and a few bees.

Desert rose growing in Morogoro, Tanzania.

TOP, LEFT TO RIGHT Acacia brevispica, Mucuna sp., Ipomoea sp, Acanthus sp. and Calotropis procera a milkweed that attracts bees and butterflies, Triumfetta sp. (image cutout) BOTTOM Wild hibiscus sp.,

WILDFLOWERS

Clematisspp. Found in woodland, and highland forest edges.

Clematisare important for bees, including honeybees.

Cleome spp. Seasonally important for many different kinds of bees, butterflies, and hawkmoths.

Gynandropsisgynandra An important resource in grassland, bush, and savannah for honeybees, solitary bees, hawkmoths, and butterflies.

Kalanchoe spp. One of the most attractive and important nectar sources for butterflies and moths.

Kleinia spp. An important resource for butterflies in the drylands, grasslands, and savannah.

Cyathula spp. Important for bees, butterflies, and flies seasonally.

Tribulus spp. Even though the spiky seeds of this weed can annoyingly get stuck in boots and tyres, it is an important resource for many different kinds of bees in arid areas.

Impatiens spp. Plant species important for bees, butterflies (especially skipper butterflies), and hawkmoths.

Commicarpus spp. Weedy herbs that attract a lot of different bees.

Mormodica spp. An important genus of plants for some beautiful and rare and specialised bees (Ctenoplectra spp.) that collect oils from the flowers.

Tephrosia spp. A legume that attracts many different kinds of bees including

Pseudapis spp., and leafcutter bees.

Indigofera spp. Perhaps one of the most crucial plants for bees in the arid and seasonal habitats of eastern Africa. Many different kinds of bees visit

Indigofera spp. for both nectar and pollen.

TOP, LEFT TO RIGHT Leucassp., wild daisy family sp. Delphiniu sp., Commelina sp.

BOTTOM Gloriosa superba–a good plant for butterflies, Justiciasp. One of the most useful plants for bees.

Vigna spp. As with most of the legumes, this group of plants are pollinated by bees, and are especially attractive to large carpenter bees, and leafcutter bees.

Other important legumes: Dolichos spp., Lablab purpurea, Eriosema spp., Lupinus spp. in the highlands, and Trifolium.

Crotolaria spp. This genus is primarily pollinated by bees, and is essential for them. As with all legumes, the flowers need to be ‘tripped’, and many different kinds of bees have learned to do this.

Cyphostemma & CissusBoth of these plants are creepers that are visited by bees, flies, wasps, and butterflies. The related Rhoicissustridentatais also popular with insect pollinators.

Gomphocarpus spp. Bees, wasps, and butterflies visit these milkweed species. They are important food-plants for butterflies especially the lovely African Monarchs (Danaus spp.).

Pentas & Pentanisia Vital for butterflies and hawkmoths. It appears that it is mostly these insects that pollinate them.

Vernonia spp. One of the most significant wildflowers for pollinators in general.

Many different bees, butterflies, and other insects visit the open accessible flowers of Vernonia.

Some related species: Gutenbergia, Anisopappus,Sphaeranthus, Helichrysum, Conyza, Emilia, and Senecio.

Bidens spp. These common weedy plants are important for solitary bees (especially halictid bees) that can almost always be found visiting the flowers.

Heliotropium spp. These lovely flowers are visited by large numbers of insects including bees, wasps, flies, and butterflies for both nectar and pollen.

Solanum spp. These plants are often considered weedy, but are visited by many bees that are able to ‘buzz’ the flowers so as to release pollen. This is a specialised pollination system, and the bees that visit wild

Solanum species also pollinate eggplants, tomato (which are related), passionfruit, and legume crops.

Wildflowers.

TOP, LEFT TO RIGHT Cleome parvipetala, attracts bees, hawkmoths and butterflies, Solanum sp. are great for bees. Ocimum and Bidens, are two of the most useful ‘bee- plants’.

BOTTOM, LEFT TO RIGHT Bidens Crotolaria sp. are visited by large bees, and aloes by sunbirds, bees and butterflies.

Thunbergiaspp. Visited by bees, including Macrogaleabees that are important pollinators of crops.

Blepharis spp. Important for many different kinds of solitary bees especially in arid and dryland areas.

Barleria spp. This is an important group of wildflowers for both bees and butterflies. They tend to flower sparsely for longer periods, and are thereby a chief resource when other plants may not be flowering.

Justicia spp. An exceptional wildflower resource for bees found at forest edges, grassland, savannah, and in agricultural areas. Planting Justicia in wildflower strips will draw in bees, and support honeybees for honey production. Related species visited by bees include Hypoestes and Leucas.

Ocimum spp. These herbs are one of the most important ‘bee plants’, supporting and attracting all kinds of bees and other insects. Ocimum can be readily established from seed, and will naturally re-seed areas once in place. It is a good plant for honeybees, and the resulting honey has a distinctive herbal flavour.

Plectranthus spp. These wildflowers are really important for all kinds of bees. They are free flowering once established, and can be grown from cuttings. The related Orthosiphon spp. is also an important floral resource.

Commelina spp. Carpenter bees, honeybees, and other bees visit these attractive flowers. These wildflowers are a complex creation that both attract bees for pollen, and fools them with false pollen lures. Related plant species: Aneilema, Cyanotis, and Murdannia.

Bulbine spp. and Chlorophytum spp.Visited by bees, and flies, these plants often appear early at the start of the rains, and are an important resource at that time.

Wildflowers.TOP, LEFT TO RIGHT Tiny lily growing in grassland, Justicia sp.

2nd ROW Plectranthus sp., Gutenbergiasp.

3rd ROW Leonotis sp., BOTTOM Justicia flava–an important plant for bees and butterflies

Grasses & Sedges

A number of bees (especially Lipotriches spp.), and a few flies, collect pollen from grasses and sedges. These plants are wind pollinated so they don’t need pollinators. However, the pollen from grass and sedge is an important resource for bees. Honeybees will often take pollen from grasses (including Cynodon and Cenchrus), as well as from cultivated maize and sorghum

Grasses are important pollen sources for bees, but they do not depend on pollinators.

Grasslands in forest provide open habitats
that are magnets for pollinators, especially bees and butterflies.

Grasses and grasslands. TOP, LEFT TO

RIGHT Lipotriches bee gathering pollen from Buffel grass, Grassland in Turkana–areas like this provide nesting habitat for bees.

Open grasslands like the northern Serengeti are seasonally filled with bees and other insects.

Ch 7: Flies

True flies are grouped together in the insect group Diptera, which means ‘two wings’. There are over 150,000 known species of flies in the world. They can be found in most habitats, and are numerous in number.

Many different kinds of flies visit flowers for nectar, pollen, to lay eggs in the flower, or to feed on other smaller insects that may be on the plant. They are important pollinators of many plants, and even common houseflies, and bluebottles that we find annoying are important pollinators of crops like mango, and avocado.

The most important fly pollinators include hoverflies in the family Syrphidae. They have stripes on their abdomen that mimic honeybees, and are often mistaken for bees. Hoverflies are important pollinators of carrots, avocado, and a number of other crops.

Chocolate is made from the seeds of cacao trees, whose flowers can only be pollinated by specialised midges (part of the Order Diptera–the ‘True Flies’).

Without these tiny flies that are normally found in tropical rainforest, there would be no chocolate available for us to eat!

Black scavenger fly (Sepsidae) on *Rhus* flowers,

Blue- bottles and Tiny Gem butterfly on euphorbia.

Hoverfly (Syrphidae)
on *Euphorbia magnicapsula.*

Hoverfly (*Syrphidae* spp.) on euphorbia,

Hoverfly on *Harungana madagascariensis*.

*Philoliche,* a long-tongued Tabanid fly.

Ch 16: Crops dependent on pollinators grown in East Africa

This is a general list of crops grown in the region that are dependent on pollinators. For most of these crops, we have not had the benefit of extensive studies, and much remains to be learnt about their interactions with pollinators.Some crops are 100% dependent on pollinators, without whose pollination services there are simply no yields, as with watermelon, and passionfruit. In other cases as with coffee, and runner beans, pollinators contribute to the volume and improved quality of yields.

For many crops where we consume the vegetative leaves or roots (such as kales, terere, carrots), we still require pollinators for the production of seed.

Common name	Latin name	Pollinator
Alfalfa	Medicagosativa	Leafcutter bees, halictid bees, honeybees
Apple	Malusdomestica	Honeybees, solitary bees, hover flies
Avocado	Perseaamericana	Honeybees, stingless bees, solitary bees, flies, wasps
Beet	Betavulgaris	Honeybees, hover flies, solitary bees
Blackbean (Njahe)	Lablabniger	Carpenter bees, leafcutter bees
Broad bean	Viciafaba	Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees
Broccoli	Brassicaoleracea	Honeybees, solitary bees
Brussels sprouts	Brassicaoleracea	Honeybees, solitary bees
Cabbage	Brassicaoleracea	Honeybees, solitary bees
Prickly pear	Opuntiaspp.	Carpenter bees, solitary bees, honeybees
Cantaloupe (Melon)	Cucumismelo	Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees
Caraway	Carumcarvi	Honeybees, solitary bees, flies
Cardamom	Elettariacardamomum	Honeybees, solitary bees
Carrot	Daucuscarota	Flies, solitary bees, honeybees
Cashew	Anacardiumoccidentale	Honeybees, stingless bees, carpenter bees, solitary bees
Cauliflower	Brassicaoleracea	Honeybees, solitary bees
Celery	Apiumgraveolens	Honeybees, solitary bees, flies
Chilli pepper, Green pepper	Capsicum annuum, Capsicum frutescens	Honeybees, stingless bees, carpenter bees, leafcutter bees, hover flies
Chinese Cabbage	Brassicarapa	Honeybees, solitary bees
Clover	Trifolium spp.	Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees
Cocoa	Theobromacacao	Midges
Coconut	Cocosnucifera	Honeybees, stingless bees
Coffee	Coffeaspp.	Honeybees, stingless bees, solitary bees
Corriander	Coriandrumsativum	Honeybees, solitary bees
Cotton	Gossypium spp.	Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees
Cowpea (Black-eyed pea)	Vignaunguiculata	Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees
Cucumber	Cucumissativus	Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees
Eggplant	Solanummelongena	Carpenter bees, solitary bees – especially halictid bees
Fennel	Foeniculumvulgare	Honeybees, solitary bees, flies
Figs	Ficusspp.	Fig wasps
Guava	Psidiumguajava	Honeybees, stingless bees, carpenter bees, solitary bees
Lemons	Citrussp.	Honeybees
Kidney bean, Green bean	Phaseolusspp.	Honeybees, solitary bees
Loquat	Eriobotryajaponica	Honeybees, carpenter bees
Lupine	Lupinusangustifolius	Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees
Lychee	Litchichinensis	Honeybees, flies
Macadamia	Macadamiaternifolia	Honeybees, stingless bees, solitary bees, wasps, butterflies
Mango	Mangiferaindica	Honeybees, stingless bees, flies, ants, wasps
Mitoo (Crotolaria)	Crotolariabrevidens	Leafcutter bees, carpenter bees
Mustard	Brassicaalba,Brassica hirta,Brassicanigra	Honeybees, solitary bees
Palm Oil	Elaeisguineensis	Weevils, thrips
Okra	Abelmoschusesculentus	Honeybees, solitary bees
Onion	Alliumcepa	Honeybees, solitary bees
Papaya	Caricapapaya	Large hawkmoths, butterflies
Passion Fruit	Passifloraedulis	Carpenter bees, solitary bees, honeybees
	Prunuspersica	Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees, flies
Pear	Pyruscommunis	Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees, hover flies
Pigeon Pea	Cajanuscajan	Honeybees, solitary bees, leafcutter bees, carpenter bees
Plum	Prunus domestica, Prunusspinosa	Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees, flies
Pomegranate	Punicagranatum	Honeybees, solitary bees, beetles
Rapeseed	Brassicanapus	Honeybees, solitary bees
Raspberries	Rubusidaeus	Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees, hover flies
Runner Beans	Phaseoluscoccineus	Carpenter bees, honeybees, solitary bees, thrips
Sesame	Sesamumindicum	Honeybees, solitary bees, wasps, flies
Spiderplant	Gynandropsisgynandra	Honeybees, amegilla bees, hawkmoths
Squash, Pumpkin, Gourd, Marrow, Zucchini	Cucurbita spp.	Honeybees, squash bees, carpenter bees, solitary bees
Strawberries	Fragaria spp.	Honeybees, stingless bees, carpenter bees, solitary bees, hover flies
Sunflower	Helianthus annuus	Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees
Tamarind	Tamarindusindica	Honeybees
Tangerine	Citrustangerina	Honeybees, carpenter bees
Tomato	Solanumlycopersicum	Carpenter bees, solitary bees
Turnip	Brassicarapa	Honeybees, solitary bees, flies
Vanilla	Vanillaplanifolia	Solitary bees, stingless bees
Vetch	Vicia spp.	Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees
Watermelon	Citrullus lanatus	Honeybees, carpenter bees, solitary bees

Ch 10: Crop Pollination

Pollination takes place when pollen is transferred from the male part of a flower (the anthers) where pollen is produced, to the female part (the stigma) of another flower of the same species, where the pollen germinates. Pollinators (like bees, wasps, moths, bats) transport pollen between flowers, ensuring that flowers produce seeds and fruits. Many crops cultivated in East Africa require pollination.

Common crops that benefit from pollination include avocado, coffee, cowpeas, eggplant, mangoes, pigeon peas, pumpkins, okra, and tomatoes.

Indeed, studies have shown that 75% of all crop species, and over 80% of all flowering plant species are dependent on pollinators, primarily wild insects. Crops like passionfruit, cocoa, strawberries, eggplant, watermelon, cucumber, and pumpkin are wholly dependent on pollinators. For other crops, like coffee, avocado, mango and runner beans, pollinators contribute to increased yields and quality.

For trees, and plants in natural habitats, the contribution of pollination to ensuring habitats regenerate with healthy seeds and fruits is yet to be measured or fully understood.

Studies have estimated that pollination services provided by wild insects globally are worth over €150 billion (or over US $200 billion). In the Baringo region of Kenya alone, watermelons worth KES 900 million (US $9 million) are produced. All of these watermelons are the result of pollination by wild insects, primarily bees.

The following section describes pollination systems, and pollinators of some of the most common pollinator-dependent crops in our region.

Legume Crops

Runner Beans

Leafcutter bee ‘tripping’ flower of pigeonpea to expose anthers.

Runner beans exports are one of Kenya’s most important horticultural earners. When pollinators visit runner bean flowers, and pollinate them, the resulting pods are larger, better shaped, and more nutritious.

Cowpeas and pigeon peas are widely grown by small-scale farmers in East Africa, and are especially important in rural areas for domestic consumption. Runner beans, cowpeas, and pigeon peas are almost entirely dependent on pollinators.

Legume crops have a specialised pollination system involving wild bees, allowing pollination to take place only when the flower is ‘tripped’ by the bee. The flowers are bilaterally symmetrical, and when the bee lands on the flower, it has to use its weight, or legs to ‘trip’ the flower. Tripping the flower involves spreading a part of the flower called the keel. This leads to the anthers being exposed, and the visiting bee being brushed with pollen. Wild bee species are the main pollinators of these crops.

Carpenter bee *(Xylocopa*sp.)
pollinating pigeonpea.

Passionfruit

Passionfruit is nutritious, and delicious. It grows as a creeper, and spreads by way of numerous strong tendrils. Demand for passionfruit has largely been driven by the fruit juice market, with increasing numbers of farmers growing passionfruit in Kenya.

Passionfruit flowers are unique, and incredibly beautiful. They are also complex with anthers arranged above a ‘ring’, and nectaries having lids on them. It takes a hefty pollinator to lift the lid to the nectary, and the most efficient pollinators able to do this are large carpenter bees (mainly Xylocopa spp.).

To set fruit passionfruits are 100% dependent on pollinators like carpenter bees, and without them there would be no passionfruits for us to eat, or to make juice. It is unfortunate that farmers often mistake the large carpenter bees for beetles, or pests, and kill them.

Carpenter bees like to nest in wood, and are attracted to hedgerows with a variety of wildflowers.

Eggplant

Local demand for eggplants (also known as aubergines and brinjals) has increased significantly in East Africa. Eggplants are a high nutritious vegetable, and can grow in hot, dry areas where vegetables are harder to grow. Eggplants belong to the nightshade family (Solanaceae), which include tomatoes and potatoes.

Flowers of plants in this family have a specialised pollination system called ‘buzz pollination’ involving wild bees. Buzz pollination involves the bee holding the flower with its mouthparts, and causing it vibrate, by using the motion from its wing muscles to transfer the vibration energy into the flower. Only when this is done at the correct frequency is pollen forcibly released from the anthers.

Eggplants are 100% dependent on pollinators to produce fruit, with solitary (non-social) species of wild bees, being the exclusive pollinators of eggplant flowers.

Maintain natural habitat patches around fields of eggplant to support solitary wild bee pollinators.

Freshly harvested eggplants thanks to hard-working bee

Eggplant farmer admires part of her harvest in Turkana.

*Meliturgula* sp. and stingless bee on an eggplant flower

Mango

Sometimes called the ‘king of fruits’, the area under mango cultivation has grown considerably in East Africa. It is eaten as fresh, or dried fruit, and used to make juice, jam, and chutney.

Kenya’s average mango yield per hectare is about 16 tons of fruit. A single large healthy mango tree can annually produce over one thousand fruits for sale. The farmer may be able to sell each mango for up to KES 50, giving him an annual income of KES 50,000 (around US $600) from each tree!

Mango trees flower in synchrony bearing many flowers at the same time. Mango trees are dependent on optimal weather, and sufficient numbers of pollinators to set fruit with success.

Mango tree flowers are simple, open, and small in size. They are visited, and pollinated by different kinds of wasps, and even ants, but flies, and stingless bees are thought to be the main pollinators of mangoes. As mangoes flower only seasonally, a grower of mangoes will need to maintain patches of natural habitat, and wildflowers, for wild insect pollinators to visit when the mango trees are not in flower.

Coffee

Kenya’s arabica coffee is well know, and sought after around the world. Coffee sales are a major contributor to the country’s Gross Domestic Product, and the industry employs millions of Kenyans.

Coffee bushes flower synchronously at different times of the year, usually at the beginning of the rains. Coffee varieties can be self-pollinated, but the presence of pollinators improves the quality, and size of the coffee beans. Some varieties of coffee in East Africa, such as robusta coffee, appear to be completely dependent on pollinators.

The main pollinators of coffee flowers are different kinds ofbees. Honeybee hives can be placed amongst coffee bushes to improve coffee yields. Other pollinators of coffee are many different kinds of wasps, large

flies, butterflies, moths, and even sunbirds.

To support wild bee pollinators of coffee it is important to provide other sources of nectar. These can include areas of wildflowers, or indigenous shade trees along the edges of coffee plantations.

Protecting pollinators of coffee from pesticides is important, and should be managed carefully.

Spraying when coffee is in flower could negatively impact the pollinators, and therefore coffee yields.

Bee-hives near coffee–can improve yields of high quality coffee through the efforts of pollinators.

Watermelon, Squashes and Cucumber

Watermelon, and other melons flourish in the dryland areas of Kenya. Watermelon is an important source of nutrition for many people, and a high value crop.

Watermelons grow as creepers, have separate male and female flowers on the same plant, and are pollinated by many different kinds of bees and flies. It takes many thousands of pollen grains transferred onto the stigma of a receptive watermelon flower to produce a large, tasty fruit. The amount of pollen deposited correlates to the quality, and flavour of the fruit. Large amounts of pollen produce the best fruits. Wild solitary bees, stingless bees, and hoverflies have been recorded as good pollen transporters, and pollinators of watermelon flowers.

Watermelons, sweet melons, butternut squashes, and pumpkins are all in the same family, Cucurbitaceae. All of these crops are highly dependent on pollinators. Leave some areas of natural habitat to encourage pollinators, and manage pesticides carefully during flowering.

*Macrogalea* bee crawling out of a watermelon flower.

Papaya

Papaya, also known as pawpaw, is an important fruit crop for many smallholder farmers in East Africa, who are fully dependent on pollinators to pollinate their papaya.

Papaya has separate male and female plants. Male flowers are produced in large numbers on male plants, while female flowers are produced is smaller numbers at the base of the leaves on female papaya plants. Papaya pollinators have to visit male flowers, collect pollen, then visit female flowers to ensure pollination, and fruit set.

The pollinators of papaya in East Africa are primarily hawkmoths, and a few skipper butterflies.

Hawkmoths are efficient pollinators as they can move rapidly between different papaya plants on a farm.

Hawkmoths, and skipper butterflies need other plants for nectar. They also require wild plant species, called host-plants, to provide a place to lay their eggs, and from where caterpillars can feed, and grow.

Hawkmoths are the main pollinators of papaya.

Papaya trees in fruit thriving in this natural habitat.

Close-up of young fruit and male flowers of papaya.

Spices and Seeds

Spices are tasty, high value, and often health supporting components of our diet. Pollinators contribute by pollinating the flowers that develop into the seeds and fruits that we harvest, and use as spices. Examples of spices that are pollinated by insects in East Africa include chillies (pollinated by bees), bell peppers (pollinated by bees), cardamom (pollinated by bees), and coriander—also called cilantro (pollinated by bees, wasps, flies).

Lycaenid butterfly and cuckoo wasp on coriander flowers.

Almonds–a crop that depends on pollinators.

Traditional Vegetables

Different kinds of indigenous vegetables are grown as traditional food plants across East Africa, and contribute to food, and nutritional security in rural areas. Each region often has special plants that make the cuisine, and diet of that area distinctive. Common traditional vegetables in the region include the blackbean (njahe), wild spinach (terere), leafy amaranth varieties, and a number of legumes.

Bees, and other insects pollinate traditional vegetables. For example, in western Kenya, ‘Mitoo’, Crotolaria brevidens, is a legume, which has a specialised pollination system that involves leafcutter bees, and carpenter bees serving as its pollinators. ‘Mchicha’, Gynandropsis gynandra, is another popular plant whose long brush-like flowers are pollinated by both hawkmoths, and bees.

Pollination systems of most of our traditional vegetables have not been studied.

Convolvulus hawkmoth (*Agrius convolvuli*) visiting flowers of ‘Mchicha’ *Gynandropsis gynandra.*

Carpenter bee (*Xylocopa flavorufa*) pollinating flowering blackbean.

White-lined Sphinx (*Hippotion celerio*) visiting flowers of ‘Mchicha’ *Gynandropsis gynandra.*

Forage and fodder plants

Forage, and fodder plants are crops that comprise livestock feed. Different animals will feed on different kinds of plants, depending the region, and habitat.

Important forage crops for cattle in East Africa are legumes like lucerne (also known as alfalfa), which help increase meat, and milk production. Wild bees are the main pollinators of Lucerne.

Other legume species used by livestock include: acacias, Indigofera, and Crotolaria.

All of these are dependent on pollinators.

The highly nutritious pods of the Umbrella Thorn Acacia, Acacia tortilis, are widely consumed by livestock in arid and semi-arid regions. Without these pods, it would be harder for livestock to survive in arid areas. The pods are so valuable for supporting livestock that Acacia tortilis trees are carefully guarded, and passed as an inheritance from parents to children in parts of northern Kenya. Acacia pods are the result of pollination by a wide range of insects, primarily wild bees.

Indigofera are small sturdy shrubs that grow in the desert, and are an important forage plant for camels. In many parts of the Horn of Africa, free- ranging camels browse on the leaves, and pods of Indigofera. Without them camels would not be able to survive in these areas. Indigofera is dependent on wild bee species for pollination.

These examples show how pollinators are connected to us, not just through cultivated crops, but through our livestock too.