As we have seen customers prefer to buy clean, healthy milk with an attractive sweet taste. This is the product with the highest amount of customers. If customers cannot get this quality from the informal milk market they will buy any alternative including the very expensive long life milk.
A: Perdini 25 L milk can; B: NOTE: Securely closing lid. A padlock can be added; C: NOTE: inside rubber seal in lid to make sure it does not spill
The informal market can produce good quality milk by ensuring the following actions become a habit:
Handling at milking level
Maintain clean and healthy milking animals – milk unhealthy animals last.
Use appropriate sterilised containers for milking.
People milking animals must be healthy and maintain good personal hygiene and wear clean clothes when milking.
After milking, the milk must be covered to avoid contamination.
Transport containers must be very clean and be sterilised each day before using.
The milk gets boiled or pasteurised before it is filled into transport containers and quickly cooled, so that it can reach the market in good condition if long transport hours are predicted.
Handling at bulking/storage level
The agent must make very sure that bulking containers are very clean, and sterilised before taken into use.
Clean the bulking container very well.
Pour some boiling water into the bulking container and swish it around till all corners have been sterilised. Pour the water out.
Put boiled milk in separate containers and raw milk in separate containers.
Do NOT mix boiled and unboiled milk or evening and morning milk.
Close the container with a clean sterilised lid.
Boiled milk should be cooled in the storage container.
All milk waiting for transportation should be kept as cold as possible – under shade, in the wind, etc.
Handling at transportation level
Presently all milk transporting vehicles in dry areas tie milk containers to the top and side of their lorries and transports them in full sun. This is not the best as the milk will heat up and start the spoilage process. However examples have been observed of bulking agents sending their milk container in a wet bag. This would help cool the milk during transportation.
Transport options are usually shared with transport of people and other goods, so normally people wait untill the vehicle is full. Long waiting time is bad for the milk.Try to discuss with the transporters how the milk can be shaded or protected and reach the market without delay. The following are some possibilities of improving the milk transportation conditions:
Cover the milk cans with a canvas for shade, with free air movement underneath.
Send the milk cans in a wet bag to help cool the milk on the way.
If there is a lot of milk in an area the transporter may be willing to make an early milk transport without waiting for passengers – try negotiations with transporter, i.e. use of dedicated means of transport.
Handling at distribution/selling level
After reaching the market, milk is often again redistributed to smaller containers and delivered to separate customers. This is a new source of possible contamination. The following precautions are recommended:
Wash milk containers very well, till no traces of old milk is seen.
Sterilise containers with boiling water, pour the water again. Clean and sterilise all tools including funnels, etc.
Decant the milk into clean containers.
Close the milk containers with a clean sterilised top/cover. Do NOT transport milk uncovered, as it will attract flies and other contamination.
Handling at the market place
Customers are very particular about the premises they want to buy milk from. Business will be comparatively poor on a dusty street, and comparatively lively in a well defined clean shaded market place, with access to clean water and staffed by people in clean (light coloured aprons) clothes. Customers must also be able to enter the market place without getting soiled, so proper access is important. Public health issues can be taken care of in clean premises, but not in dusty streets. Well organised milk sellers will be able to find support for the construction of clean market shelters.
Economics of improved milk cans
In November 2007, Long term cost of plastic jerricans in Garissa was compared to Perdini sealed aluminum milk cans with a lifespan of at least 5 years:
Thus whereas the price of buying a new aluminium milk can is fairly high, it is a one time investment. The same can last for at least 5 years, whereas a (cheap) plastic jerrican will have to be replaced every two weeks or so. Over a 5 year period the aluminium can saves the buyer Kshs 16,000 (2007 prices).
Above table clearly shows the financial benefits of purely using metal milk cans instead of plastic jerricans. Perdini milk cans are
Aluminum and stainless steel milk cans are much easier to clean than both the traditional containers and the jerricans. They can be disinfected after washing by dipping in boiling water, and become virtually germ free – which means longer shelf life for the milk as there is no contamination from cans
Other milk cans
The ordinary Kaluworks aluminum milk cans of 2, 5 and 9 L are good for delivering milk from transport site to customers. They are cheap compared to the Perdinini cans and can last a long time if properly cared for.
In high potential areas heavier duty milk cans are used as they need to be able to withstand punishment in a different type of transport – pure milk transporting vehicles.
The outside of the animal’s udder may have soil, bedding, dust or manure on it. For pastoralists in dry areas where no clean water is available for washing of udders, wiping a dry udder with clean dry hands can reduce the amounts of contaminants on the udder that would otherwise have dropped into the milk. In wetter seasons water should be boiled or disinfected with chlorine and used for washing the udders before milking. Also hairs from the animals coat and swishing tails or dribbles from the mouth of the calf may fall into the milk. Dry scabs or scales of skin especially from animals with skin problems may be another source of contamination.
The inside of the udder may also carry germs, which can come through the teat canals. Usually the first milked out milk has high bacterial counts, while the last milk has a reduced amount. Early mastitis can be detected as it appears as clots in the first 2-3 strips of milk especially from cows and goats. Camels can have hidden (chronic) mastitis, which can only be detected by tests such as CMT (Please see above).
Ensure milking takes place in a clean, dry place, free of dust and mud,
Milk healthy animals first,
Do not mix colostrums (the milk produced the first 7 days after calving) with normal milk.
2. The milker
The person milking animals can be a source of milk contamination. He or she may be ill, or may carry dirt from elsewhere that can contaminate milk.
People suffering from diarrhea, TB or typhoid should not milk camels or other milking animals. Sick people should get medical treatment and not resume milking until they are fully recovered.
The person milking animals should NEVER touch urine, retained afterbirth or aborted calves, as these can all transmit Brucellosis and TB both to the person and to the milk shared with other people.
During milking do not:
have long nails
smoke
sneeze or cough
During milking the milker should NOT have long nails, smoke, sneeze or cough.
3. The environment
Dust and very fine light manure particles can blow into the milk in dry areas. To reduce the dust content of the air at milking:
Milk in a clean place.
Sweep the milking area before milking.
If there is a strong wind, choose a milking area away from the wind.
Choose milking area away from flies and other insects.
4. The temperature
Good quality milk has a long shelf life at low temperatures (below 5°C) but the higher the temperature milk is kept at, the faster it spoils. Milk stored in the sun in any container will quickly start the process of fermentation – quickest for goat milk, slightly less quick for cow milk and slowest in the case of camel milk. Camel milk can withstand high temperatures for longer than any other types of milk, but if milked 5–6 am even if kept in a clean container the process of fermenting will start 5–6 hours later for camel milk. Keeping the milk protected in shady places will delay this process, and boiling and cooling the milk before sending it, will delay the fermentation process for up to 24 hours.
5. The milking equipment
Equipment and utensils used for milking, storage and transportation of milk may act as major sources of contamination if not well cleaned. The number of utensils used to handle milk between milking and sale to customers should be as few as possible, because the more handling equipment the more sources of contamination.
The traditional wooden or woven milking containers, which are used in pastoral areas, are almost as good and hygienic as modern metal milk cans when they are properly cleaned and smoked. However increasing amounts of non camel keeping customers will not buy smoky tasting milk.
Plastic jerricans are very unhygienic. They cannot be cleaned properly inside. If smoking is tried, they melt where the coals hit the side of the wall. The handles are hollow and can hide a myriad of germs, which no cleaning method can get properly rid of. Though cheap to buy, they are expensive in the long run. Milk traders in Garissa, Kenya buy new ones every 2 weeks, when the old ones break down or become damaged.
Camel udders differ from all other known milk producing animals in that they have 2 or more milk canals in every teat. This is probably another adaptation to their environment – even if one gets spoiled there are still others to produce milk for the calf. It does pose a challenge in the control of mastitis, as the methods for mastitis control in cows cannot be used for camels.
Zoonosis
Zoonotic diseases like brucellosis and tuberculosis can be spread to humans through milk. For camels brucellosis transmission to humans is probably the biggest problem.
Mastitis
Mastitis is the name for the inflammation of one or more milk canals and the udder of milk producing mammals.
Credit: A.B . Nganga
Mastitis symptoms in high yielding camel (note large milk vein). The quarter has become hard and hot to the touch, and a red swelling has appeared. The camel may kick excessively as the quarter has become painful to the touch.
Mastitis is common in all pastoral areas, and camels are as badly affected as goats and cows. Good milkers who know about mastitis, will milk healthy animals first and affected animals last to avoid carrying the disease to healthy animals.
The main cause of mastitis is dirt – unclean milker hands, dirty animal beddings, manure getting into contact with the udder, flies, etc. North American and European farmers have shown that is possible to boost animal immune systems against mastitis with a combination of good feeding practices and very good hygiene and culling of susceptible animals to completely avoid mastitis in cows, but it takes a great effort. Some research is currently ongoing, so camel mastitis will eventually be better documented.
Another factor that predispose to mastitis is traumatic injury (wounds). This can be caused by poor milking technique, ticks or any other wounds such as thorn scratches.
Mastitis not only reduces the milk yield of the lactating animal, sometimes whole quarters of udders dry up – it also negatively affects milk quality, taste and keeping time. A small addition of mastitic milk to any can of milk will make it acquire a very bitter taste, which can not be removed by boiling. Mastitis bacteria live off the fat of the milk and produce toxins (poisons) which can cause food poisoning, sore throats, etc.
Many types of germs can cause mastitis including Staphylococcusaureus which also causes hair loss and rough coat on especially camels. So it is not a good idea to wipe hands on the coat of the camel before or after milking.
Whereas there are medicines for the treatment of mastitis in cows, such as ready made syringes containing various antibiotics, this remedy is NOT POSSIBLE FOR CAMELS AND GOATS. Both camels and goats have much narrower milk canals than cattle and trying to insert a cow syringe in any of their udders will cause a lot of damage in the milk canal. There is no space for it.
Before the arrival of antibiotics, mastitis could sometimes be cured by very frequent milking of the affected quarter. But this would include milking every hour even during the night until the temperature goes down in the quarter and the milk returns to normal, which is quite an undertaking. If the camel has wounds on the udder, stripping technique of milking should be discouraged and use of milking salve be encouraged especially for camels which are not suckling calves.
In camels, an early infection can at times be cured by giving the calf to the affected animal and avoid milking by human hands.
If this is not possible, care should be taken to milk the affected animal(s) last in order not to carry the disease to a healthy animal.
Care should be taken to Not Mix mastitic milk with clean milk. Always wash hands between milking every animal.
Washing hands before milking and in between milking every animal
Testing for Mastitis
Mastitis symptoms (such as clotting of milk) is only visible in camel milk in very advanced stages. Early stages can be suspected if the camel kicks too much when one or more teats are touched, the udder is hot and the skin over the quarter seems tight even after milking.
Using CMT: California Mastitis Test kit. This consists of a small plastic tray with 4 bowls and a handle and a solution of detergent. Generally it may be a good idea to imagine the handle of the tray represent the TAIL of the animal, and look at the different quarters separately from there.
California Mastitis Test (CMT)
Follow instructions in the manual to identify even hidden mastitis. In pastoral herds in Kenya, often more than 50 % of animals are infected by mastitis in one or more quarters. A small amount of the the first milk stripped is mixed with a similar amount of test chemical, the mixture swirled around and if mastitis is present, the mixture becomes thick and slimy. Non-infected milk stays liquid.
Alcoholtest:
2 ml milk is mixed with 2 ml alcohol (65%) and poured into a transparent glass. Twirl it to spread over the side of the glass. If separation is seen the milk can either be mastitic or acidic.
One of the routine tests for mastitis is strip cup
Strip cup
But any black surface can serve the purpose. In rural areas, some individuals have been known to use black paper bag wrapped over a cup. This will identify advanced stages of camel mastitis, but is less useful for early cases, when action needs to be taken.
Good quality milk comes from clean healthy animals, whether camel, cow or goat. Milk from sick animals often carry diseases along, which results in unattractive taste of the milk as well as storage problems. Milk from sick animals does not keep well. Dirty milk does not keep well. If an animal has been treated with antibiotics or trypanosomes, this will be evident in the milk and is dangerous for people to consume, so withdrawal instructions must be respected.
Milk Composition
Compositional differences of camel and cow milk in UAE. Adapted from: Wernery 2007. Note; Much higher vitamin C and Insulin content in camel milk compared to cow milk.
Good quality milk is:
Has a fresh clean smell,
Looks clean
Is free from contaminants such as dirt, etc.,
Is stored in a clean attractive container
Taste issues:
Clean healthy milk has a fresh, clean, sweet (for camel milk at times slightly salty) taste, which is highly preferred by customers.
Bitter taste can be caused by:
Camels eating bitter herbs,
Milk from camels in late lactation changes taste to become less sweet.
Unclean (various shades of rotten) taste is most often caused by:
Dirt in the milk,
Mastitis present in the milk.
Smell issues:
All milk consumers learn quickly to smell the quality of milk. Fresh clean milk smells fresh and clean and boiled milk has its own aroma.
Unpleasant smell can be caused by:
Contamination with dirt (smell of manure).
Mastitis (can give a slightly sickly smell).
acaricide that is applied to the udder for tick control. There have been cases of poisoning after consumption of such milk.
Spoilage of milk. Various spoilage bacteria can give various odors.
Sour smell is caused by the beginning fermentation of the milk. This can be pleasant or unpleasant depending on consumer preference.
Contamination issues:
As customers all over clearly prefer clean milk, efforts should be made to make sure no contaminants enter the milk. A sterilised tea sieve with small holed netting is a useful tool for straining milk after milking to avoid sending milk to market with contamination by any dirt.
Containers:
All milk containers must be clean and attractive looking to encourage customer confidence. See chapter on Milk Quality.
Healthy milk
Healthy milk does not pose a threat to consumers. Thus healthy milk is free from:
Diseases transmitted to humans through camel milk
Milk is a near perfectfood for humans, animals as well as microorganisms. Milk can transfer disease germs from animal or person/milker/handler to customers if not boiled or pasteurised. The following diseases are transferable in milk:
Brucellosis (instantaneous abortion fever) affects people and animals alike. In people the fever, which may feel like a bad case of malaria, gives symptoms such as headache, fever, joint pains, general fatigue, and in pregnant women – abortion. The cure after proper diagnosis in the lab is a long expensive treatment with antibiotics. Animals may be vaccinated against this disease. Brucellosis is common in ASAL areas both in animals and people.
Brucellosis and Tuberculosis (TB) can be transmitted through uterine discharge and urine which may contaminate milk and milker’s hands. Milkers should therefore Not touch urine, retained after birth or aborted fetuses as these can all transmit Brucellosis and TB.
Tuberculosis.Any milker who has TB can transfer this disease to the milk via hands, sneezing or even breathing onto the milk. TB is common in ASAL areas especially in people.
Camels can also be carriers of tuberculosis and transmit it to people drinking raw camel milk:Tuberculosis is known to affect all species of livestock. Camels can transmit it to humans via milk especially to children.
Scarlet fever
Cholera
Q-fever
Dysentery
Diphtheria
Typhoid
Mastitis.This is an infection of the udder of the animal, and all milk producing animals (as well as humans) can become infected. The presence of mastitis in milk will give a very tainted taste, which does not disappear after boiling, so will discourage consumers from buying.
Please note:
The threat of disease transfer is removed if the milk is boiled or pasteurised.
Many milk sellers have discovered that customers actually prefer boiled milk, as it is safer for their families to consume.
Credits: BiovisionFoundation and CHR HANSEN LABORATORIES
Camels (c) Anne Bruntse, Biovision
Importance of Camels in ASAL
As climate change becomes more and more pronounced, the benefit of keeping camels in ASAL areas is becoming more and more obvious. Camels have a range of advantages over other livestock in dry areas as:
camels can sustain long periods without water,
camels can travel long distances making them able to use forage far from water points where other livestock cannot reach,
camels can produce much more milk than other livestock under ASAL conditions,
camels browse on trees so do not compete with cattle and small stock.
Importance of Camel Milk
Camel milk plays a vital role in household food security, prevention of malnutrition and acts as a source of cash to camel keepers and traders. However there are major restrains in marketing – particularly hygiene issues. Among the factors that contribute to poor hygienic standards of the milk in the ASAL are scarcity of water, traditional ways of milking, high temperatures, dusty environments and inadequate knowledge on clean milk production and handling.
The users/consumers of marketed camel milk is so far the growing urban population, both in Eastleigh and Garissa, with the Garissa market now consuming far the largest share of camel milk. And consumers are quite particular as to the quality of milk they prefer to consume. Informally marketed milk musthave mostofthe same qualities as formally marketed milk, such as a good taste, cleanliness and reliability of this quality. The price seems to matter much less, as consumers will buy expensive long life milk if the informally marketed milk is not of good enough quality.
Camel milk has the following advantages to other kinds of milk:
Under the same climatic conditions, camel milk yield potential is far higher than cows. The Bos indicus cattle able to survive in ASAL areas give 3–4 L milk/each daily under favourable conditions right after the rains, whereas good camels under favourable conditions can reach a milk yield of 15–20 L/day.
Whereas cows stop producing milk during droughts, camels continue producing forprolonged periods, provided they have access to enough browse.
Camel milk has different properties from that of cows. It is more heat resistant, giving it a longer shelf life even during extreme transport conditions
Camel milk is also perceived as a food that heals and sustains life, so is a highly priced commodity, fetching better prices than any other kind of milk.
The following health benefits have been reported in literature, some of it confirmed by medical studies, but far more research is needed. Camel milk properties as reported:
Consumption of ½ L camel milk per day will reduce the insulin needs in patients with Diabetes Type I by 30% or more. Some patients are reported to have become symptom free after constant daily intake of camel milk (Agrawal etal., 2005).
Camel milk has positive effects in controlling high blood pressure.
Camel milk helps in the management of Arteriosclerosis and Osteoporosis.
Camel milk has been shown to have potent anti-bacterial and anti-viral factors. Clinical trials shows that patients with infectious diseases (Tuberculosis) has a significantly higher recovery rate if they consume camel milk.
Camel milk has 3 times the content of Vitamin C compared to cow milk (see table below).
Camel milk does not produce lactose intolerance in people as far as known (Restani etal.,1999)
Camel milk should be beneficial for autistic children (Sima Ash
2013).
Economic importance of camel milk
According to extrapolated figures from the Kenya Camel Association, the annual value of dryland camel milk production (2012) is in the region of Ksh 32 billion (based on a market price of Ksh 60 per litre). Part of this production is consumed locally and part of it is marketed through informal channels, with producers receiving the Ksh 30+ and another Ksh 30+ being netted by the substantial marketing chain. Figures on how big a part is marketed annually in Kenya are not available.
Consumer preference and public health concerns
As evidenced in the interim study report (2008): Consumption patterns, Marketing Channels and Consumer Demand for Camel milk and meat in Kenya, consumers rate milk as per the following criteria:
It is thus very clear that quality parameters rate much higher than price concerns for the consumers. Whether milk is packed or not is also less important than freshness, but fear of adulteration will deter some customers from buying informally marketed milk. So in the absence of proof of non-adulteration only personal relationships between sales person and customer – mainly the level of trust that can be built – will determine the level of sales from the informal sector. Price is evidently a more important issue in Eastleigh than in Garissa.
Public Health concerns concerning the informal milk trade include the prevention of the spread of communicable diseases as described in the chapter on Good Milk Quality/Healthy milk.
During the study of marketing, processing and value adding of camel milk and meat products in the ASAL region of Kenya which concentrated on the Garissa market, as there were other projects starting up in both Isiolo and Wajir. During the course of the study a great need was identified for training manuals on hygiene in informal camel milk marketing, as a huge and increasing demand for safe camel and other milk was identified. Camel milk is fetching highest prices of any milk, and all camel milk is marketed in an informal manner by women with mostly inadequate knowledge on hygienic milk handling. Towards the end of the study and due to training traders on proper milk handling the camel milk market in Garissa had expanded manifold, and an increased interest in producing camel milk for commercial purposes was emerging, as Garissa seems to be able to consume rather enormous amounts of milk provided it is marketed in a hygienic manner. Garissa has during the study stopped exporting milk to Nairobi and is now consuming milk from a much larger upland than ever before.
Malkia and her family. Burguret. Kenya Credit: Su Kahumbu
Understand Cattle and promote their Health and Welfare
Cattle have a history of domestication for thousands of years. Many different breeds are developed and adapted to highly different environments and conditions throughout the world. They are natural grazers and their digestion is totally geared towards grazing and eating roughage. They will graze and ruminate most of the day. When grazing, they will stand with one front leg a little in front of the other, and graze as they slowly walk forward. They do not naturally walk backwards, and therefore most bed and cubicle systems force them to unnatural movements for their anatomy. They are remarkably strong and robust animals, and if a trustful relationship with humans is created, they are friendly, patient and collaborative towards humans. Since they are strong, they can cause a lot of damage if they are scared and confused, which is often due to mistreatment or lack of guidance on what they should do. They do not want to walk from light to darkness, they prefer to walk uphill rather than downhill, and they do not want to walk around sharp corners.
Cows should be clean. Dirty animals are a result of dirty living conditions. Credit:Su Kahumbu
They get easily scared if they see unknown things, like cloth blowing in the wind. Their walkway and housing systems should be designed to meet these needs for them to feel safe and comfortable. The humans should take the time which the cattle need to walk in their own pace – otherwise the risk of lameness gets high. Cattle have a vivid body language, which we as humans can read. They use their tails in their communication: when it is hanging down, it is relaxed, and when it is in between the hind legs, it is scared or cold or in pain. When alert, it raises its tail. The ears and head movements clearly shows their mood: curious, angry, scared etc.
(c) Mette Vaarst
Cattle have a good sight, but a blind angle behind them – therefore they should always be approached slightly from the side to not get startled.
They need space to ‘swing’ their body when laying down or raising up. This space should always be provided when designing housing facilities. An adult cow uses about 3 meters to get up or lay down. The movement forward with the head and shoulders alone is about 0.7-1 meter.
These poor animals are seeping in their mess. They are likely to get mastitis and other illnesses. Credit:Su Kahumbu
Cattle are clean animals. They prefer to not step in their own manure, they have an instinct that they should graze in a distance from dung to avoid parasites, which can be transferred through manure. For their personal skin hygiene, they groom each other, and they can reach all parts of their own body. To do this, they should always have a non-slippery floor to stand on. This is also necessary when they show that they are in heat, because then other cows or the bull will approach them and jump on their back (the sign for the owner that they are in heat), and they can damage themselves severely if the floor does not allow safe jumping.
Friesian cow with calf (c) AIC Documentation Unit, Kenya
Much of their behavior can be explained by the fact that they are flock animals. This means that they perform synchronic behavior: they want to do the same things at the same time, and stay in the group. They graze and lay down as a group. One cow is not likely to leave the group, unless she is diseased or expecting to calve.
Cattle health and welfare are two very important aspects of dairy production.
Many losses in dairy cattle production can be avoided by paying careful attention to preventive health care and seeing that the animals are comfortable and able to function the way nature intended. The following are the main preventive measures every serious dairy farmer should consider:
Proper feeding and prevention of starvation is the first aspect to be addressed
Disease prevention such as regular tick control
Prevention of management and production diseases
Vaccination of animals according to veterinary recommendations for the area
Good housing/ milking facilities, where proper hygiene can be managed
Good supervision to ensure incidental diseases are dealt with in a timely and appropriate manner
Below, some additional points add to the understanding of cows and how they can be supported by good management in a farming environment:
1. Hunger and thirst
Cows spend 7-9 hours a day grazing and nearly the same amount of time ruminating the ingested feed. Adequate provision of fibre is an essential requirement for a healthy rumen environment. Fibre ranging from 7-10 cm in length (approximately the width of the muzzle) is optimum and prevents cattle selecting through the ration and discarding longer fibre. Long fibre stimulates cudding, which in turn stimulates saliva production, and saliva is the primary rumen buffer, preventing acidosis. The optimum forage to concentrate ratio to maintain rumen health and pH at 6 – 6.8 is 60:40 on a dry matter (DM) basis (roughage: concentrate). Rumen acidosis is the most common forage related stress that we see in dairy cattle. Rumen acidosis is primarily due to inadequate levels of effective fibre in the rations of those cows. High yielding cows are commonly fed diets containing 45 – 55 % forage on a DM basis. Finishing beef cattle are often fed a diet consisting of 25 – 40% forage on a DM basis.
2. Freedom from discomfort
A long lying period and space to move freely, lying and raising up, and escaping in cases of confrontations is important in the prevention of lameness in dairy cows, and it has also been noted that cows spend significantly more time lying down ruminating, as opposed to standing ruminating. Because a large percentage of cattle time is spent ruminating whilst loafing, dry comfortable hygienic bedding that encourages cows to lie down is highly important.
3. Freedom from pain, injury or disease
Hygienic bedding material in order to minimize the risk of mastitis is a priority. Being able to lie down is very important to cattle. When given choice and optimum conditions, cows are known to spend 50% or more of their time lying down. A comfortable resting surface is an important aspect in encouraging cows to lie down. Cattle prefer dry, soft, insulating bedding, and subsequently show reduced incidence and severity of leg injuries.In addition, the following need to be adhered to:
Stocking Rate: A stocking rate of 1 to 1.4 Lu’s/ha is suitable for organic farming. ( Lu= Livestock Unit)
Livestock System: Suckler cows and sheep are suited to organic farming. Under good husbandry natural immunity to parasites and diseases can develop. A grazing system which reduces the worm burden should be established.
Clover: Clover is essential at higher stocking rates. Good clover stands can double pasture production, grass quality and animal performance is improved.
Tillage: Some tillage is a major bonus. It provides cheaper grain and straw and allows the renewal of grassland. From 2008 only organic cereals can be fed to ruminants.
Housing: The conventional straw bedded sheep house conforms to organic standards. In cattle housing a straw bedded lying area is essential (the feeding area may be slatted).
The welfare of poultry includes its physical and mental state. Good poultry welfare implies both fitness and a sense of well-being for the animal. Any poultry kept by man, must at least be protected from unnecessary suffering. An animal’s welfare, whether on farm, in transit, at market or at a place of slaughter should be considered in terms of ‘five freedoms’. These freedoms define ideal states rather than standards for acceptable welfare. They form a logical and comprehensive framework for analysis of welfare within any system together with the steps and compromises necessary to safeguard and improve welfare within the proper constraints of an effective livestock industry.
1) Freedom from Hunger and Thirst – by ready access to fresh water and a diet to maintain full health and vigor. 2) Freedom from Discomfort – by providing an appropriate environment including shelter and a comfortable resting area.
3) Freedom from Pain, Injury or Disease – by prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment.
4) Freedom to Express Normal Behaviour – by providing sufficient space, proper facilities and company of the animal’s own kind.
5) Freedom from Fear and Distress – by ensuring conditions and treatment which avoid mental suffering.
Vaccination regime recommended for commercial chicks, but also applicable to improved management of indigenous chicken (Sigma feeds chicken recommendations):
Age
Vaccinate against
Application
1st week
Marek and Newcastle disease
Subcut (neck)
2nd week
Gumboro
In drinking water
3rd week
Lasota + IB (Newcastle)
In drinking water or eye/nostril drop
4th week
Deworming, IBD forte
In drinking water
5th week
Lasota + IB
In drinking water
6 – 8th week
Typhoid
Injection
9th week
Deworming (every 2-4 weeks)
In drinking water
8 – 10th week
Fowl pox
Wing stab
12 – 14th week
Typhoid
Injection
16 – 18th week
Renewed Newcastle (where disease is prevalent)
Optional
There are four fundamental ways of vaccinating birds: 1) Eye drops 2) Injections 3) Skin piercing. 4) Orally (in feed or water)
For scavenging poultry, you should avoid mixing vaccines with drinking water or feed, as it is difficult to give the right dose. Research has shown that protection against e.g. Newcastle disease is highly variable if vaccine is given through water or feed. Giving the right dose is essential for the vaccine to work properly. A too high dose of a live vaccine may kill a young chick, whereas a too low dose will not give adequate protection. Thus, it is important to consult a veterinarian or auxiliary veterinarians (barefoot vets, village vaccinators) for further advice before carrying out a vaccination.
Tools for application normally include a clean apron (green or other dark colour if possible) vaccine vial (B) stored in a cool box (C), soap to clean hands (D), clean needles (E), clean syringe (G) and a clean box for needles and syringe (F). Needles and syringe should be boiled in water for 5 minutes and cooled before re-use
It is important to treat the clean syringe and needle carefully. Do no touch the end of the needle after cleaning. Put the needle gently on the syringe holding the needle with the sharp end upwards . Put the vaccine vial upside-down and press the needle gently through the plastic seal of the vial cap. Pull the syringe handle gently down, while sucking the vaccine out of the vial until the syringe is full. Press the syringe handle back until you reach the right volume.
Ensure that there are no air bubbles trapped in the syringe or the needle. Air bubbles will give the wrong dose to the chickens. Normally a full 1 ml syringe will match 10 doses, one for each of ten adult birds. This however depends on the weight of the bird and the type of vaccine, and the application method.
The most common methods for vaccinating adult poultry are eye drops (A), injections in the breast or thigh muscles (B) or by piercing the skin of the wing (C). The most common methods for young chicks are eye drops and skin piercing. When the birds grow older, injections are given in the breast or thigh muscles. Depending on the vaccine type, eye drops may also be used for adult birds. Please consult the local veterinarian for clarification and technical information
Vaccines should be given either early morning, before letting the birds out of the chicken house or when the local birds are easy to catch resting in the trees. When vaccinating adult poultry for the first time, you should preferably be two persons, one holding the bird, the other one vaccinating.
General precautions for vaccination with live vaccines:
All vaccines should be stored in a refrigerator before use.
Some vaccines are heat stable, which means that the vaccine will tolerate high temperatures. However, heat stable vaccines should also be stored in a cold place to keep them viable. You should always keep vaccines out of direct sunlight.
When using vaccines in the field, you should as far as possible transport them in a cool box with ice.
The syringe, needle and other equipment to be used for vaccination should not be cleaned by any chemical disinfectants, as these may destroy the vaccine. They should instead be disinfected in boiling water and be used after cooling.
The vaccines must be mixed or diluted in cold distilled water, and care must be taken to ensure that the vaccines do not come in contact with direct sunlight.
It is best to vaccinate birds during the cool hours of the day, either in the morning or evening.
Some mixed vaccines should be used within 30 minutes. Otherwise they will be useless and should be thrown away.
Always consult a veterinarian or an auxiliary veterinarian before conducting a vaccination campaign.
8. Information Sources
A. M. Wachira, KARI, Kenya: Various working papers and presentations.
AIC, Ministry of Agriculture, Kenya
Acamovic, T., Sinurat, A., Ntarajan, A., Anitha, K., Chandrasekaran, D., Shindey, D., Sparks, N., Oduguwa, O., Mupeta, B. and Kitalyi, A. (2005). Poultry. In: Livestock and Wealth Creation – Improving the husbandry of animals kept by resource-poor people in developing countries. Ed. by Owen, E., Kitalyi, K., Jayasuriya, N., and Smith, T. – Natural Resources International Ltd. ISBN 1 904761 32 1.
Haynes, C. (1985). Raising chicken. TAB books Inc. USA, ISBN: 0-8306-1963-1
Kitalyi, A.J. (1998). Village chicken production systems in rural Africa – Hausehold food security and gender issues. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 142. Rom. ISBN 92-5-104160-1
Ondwasy, H., Wesonga, H. and Okitoi, L. (2006). Indigenous chicken production manual. KARI Technical Note No.18, February 2006. Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya. ISBN:9966-879-62-5
Sonaya, E.B. and Swan, S.E.J.: Small Scale Poultry Production. FAO Animal Production and Health Manual
Disease outbreak and death of the animals depend on their age, nutrional status and hygiene of their housing.
Characteristics of healthy birds:Alert and on guard.Bright eyes and comb.Walk, run, stand and scratch.Continuously eat and drink.Normally lay eggs.Normally smooth and neat feathers.Soft compact droppings breathe quietly.
Characteristics of unhealthy birds/sick birdsTired and lifelessDull eyes and combSit or lie downEat and drink lessLay less or stop laying eggsRuffled and loose feathersWet droppings with blood or worms, diarrheaCough, sneeze and breathe noisily.
Health and disease management
Starts at the hatchery and continues to maturity.
Poultry will often remain healthy when they are well fed and managed, vaccinated against diseases when relevant in your area.
In case of disease outbreak, sick birds should be isolated and dead birds removed burnt or buried
Apply strict sanitary measures in all houses.
Notify veterinarian as soon as possible.
Good disease prevention practices
Vaccinate the chicken as recommended by the vet
Vaccinate only health chicken
Give access to the right feed and clean water, in particular for small chicks
Build shelters against wind and rain and predators
Clean houses regularly and apply lime wash/disinfect the floor and walls
Provide dry litter regularly where applicable
Do not put too many birds together
Different species of poultry for example hens, turkeys, pigeons, ducks and guinea fowls should be kept separate
Separate chicks from adult birds except from the mother hen
Isolate and treat sick birds
Burn or burry dead birds (do not try to eat sick birds that have died – diseases can sometimes transfer to human beings never mind how well they are cooked).
Vaccination regime recommended for commercial chicks, but also applicable to improved management of indigenous chicken (Sigma feeds chicken recommendations):
Age
Vaccinate against
Application
1st week
Marek and Newcastle disease
Subcut (neck)
2nd week
Gumboro
In drinking water
3rd week
Lasota + IB (Newcastle)
In drinking water or eye/nostril drop
4th week
Deworming, IBD forte
In drinking water
5th week
Lasota + IB
In drinking water
6 – 8th week
Typhoid
Injection
9th week
Deworming (every 2-4 weeks)
In drinking water
8 – 10th week
Fowl pox
Wing stab
12 – 14th week
Typhoid
Injection
16 – 18th week
Renewed Newcastle (where disease is prevalent)
Optional
Importance of a disease is judged by mortality rates and effect on production. Diseases in poultry are divided into three categories:
High importance
high mortality (more than 30% of the flock)
highly contagious and difficult treatment.
Medium importance
medium mortality (10-30%) of the flock and/or difficult treatment.
Less importance, signifies not common
lower mortality and/or easy treatment
Diseases with high mortality (more than 30% of the flock), highly contagious and difficult treatment
Newcastle Disease
Avian Influenza (AI)
Fowl pox
Fowl cholera (pasteurellosis)
Coccidiosis (internal parasites)
Disease with medium mortality (10-30%) of the flock and/or difficult treatment
Pullorum disease (Baciillary white diarrhea)
Fowl typhoid
Gumboro (Infectious Bursal Disease, IBD)
Infectious coryza
Chronic respiratory disease (Mycoplasmosis)
Roundworms and tapeworms (Internal parasites)
Mycotoxicosis (fungal poisoning)
External Parasites
Less importance, signifies not common, lower mortality and/or easy to treatment
Marek’s disease
E. coli infection
Scaly legs
Nutritional diseases
1) Nutritional diseases
Symptoms: Bone and leg deformation and feather loss. The birds walk with difficulty; they limp. Some deficiencies may cause feather loss. Treatment, if detected in time: Supplementary vitamins and calcium, fresh grass, and cow dung. Nutritional diseases may be avoided when the birds have access to normal vegetation and are therefore rare in scavenging chickens.
2) Protozoan diseases
Protozoa such as Emiria tenella (coccidia) are larger than bacteria and can be easily seen under the microscope. Protozoan diseases are caused by poor hygiene and sanitation. Symptoms: Sick looking birds with head down, ruffled feathers and bloody diarrhea, death of young chicks. Prevention and control:
Avoid keeping different age groups of birds in the same house as disease may spread from adults to young chicks
Use of EM or BM in drinking water for prevention
Clean up chicken house and disinfect the area with lime (dusting with whitewash or agricultural lime)
During outbreaks use coccidiostat mixture in drinking water
3) Bacterial diseases
Bacteria are minute germs that can only be seen under microscopes. Bacterial diseases can be prevented through good hygiene and sanitation. Very common are diseases caused by Salmonella bacteria, namely:
Pullorum disease. It is caused by sub-species S. pullorum and it is severe by chicks. It is transmitted from hen to chicks during egg formation, contamination of eggs during laying or the chicksget infected form faeces. Symptoms: dead embryo in eggs that do not hatch; chicks develop wet tails within the first week; whitish diarrhoea, chicks walk with difficulty, show big bellies and drag their wings, huddling anddifficulty in breathing. Mortality can reach 100% in the first two weeks.
Fowl typhoid. It is caused by the species S. gallinarum and it affects growers and adult chickens. It is spread through contamination of feed and water by faeces of infected birds. Symptoms: Usually seen in older birds, high body temperature, tiredness, blue comb, decrease in egg production, egg fertility and hatchability; anorexia and dullness followed by sudden death.
Salmonellosis. It is caused by another Salmonella species. It affects chicks and adults.It is spread by contamination of eggs at laying or through contaminated feed and water and faeces. Symptoms: Decline in egg production, egg fertility and hatchability; anorexia and dullness followed by sudden death.
Collibacillosis. It is acute in chicks and chronic in adult chicken. Common in newly hatched chicks. Chicks get contaminated through eggs and contaminated faeces, while feed and water transmit the disease to both chicks and adults. It can be prevented by keeping good egg and nest sanitation. Symptoms: Respiratory distress, diarrhoea, high mortality of chicks and dead embryos in spoiled eggs.
Infectious Coryza. This disease can be acute, mild or chronic. Contamination occurs by faecal matter, aerosols or through feed and water. It can be prevented by vaccination with bacterin in water at 10 to 12 weeks and 16 to 18 weeks. Symptoms: Swollen watery eyes, closed eyes, nasal discharge (runny nose), laboured breathing and decrease in egg production. All clinically ill chicken should be destroyed.
Fowl Cholera (Pasteurellosis). This may occur at all ages of chicken, causing infection of the stomach region. Symptoms: severe diarrhea, breathing problems, loss of appetite, blue combs and wattles. May occur as a cronic disease or as sudden death. Infection is mainly through contaminated feed and drinking water. There is no treatment. Best prevention is strict hygiene and vaccination. Destroy through killing and burn affected birds.
Prevention and control Salmonella and other pathogenic bacteria are present in the air and feaces of most animals, and can even be present in some of the food items bought in the shops. Bacterial diseases can be prevented through good hygiene and sanitation. Which means regular cleaning of chicken houses and runs, regular disinfections with lime, etc. Some diseases such as fowl typhoid can be prevented by vaccinating the birds.
Note: Do not vaccinate sick birds. They are too weak to handle vaccinations and may die.
4) Parasitic diseases
Parasites are organisms that live in or on a host (animal or plant); the parasite obtains nourishment from the host without benefiting or killing the host. Chicken parasites include lice and fleas, and worms living in the opening of organs. They may cause diseases and weaken the immune-system, making the chicken susceptible to other diseases.Worms
Worms inhabit the alimentary canal and other internal organs such as lungs, trachea, etc. There are two groups of worms: round worms and flat worms.
a) Round worms
Ascridia galli. They infect both chicks and adult chicken. Infection occurs through eggs that are laid by female worms in birds’ entestines and are passed out in droppings. They mature in one week or longer, and are swallowed up by chicken, hatch and cause new infection. Prevention is difficult due to feeding habits, especially by scavenging chicken. Symptoms: Slow growth and stunted, culled feathers and drooping head, thirst, low egg production and death due to intestinal obstruction in young birds.
Gape worms (Syngamus treachea). They infect the trachea (windpipe) of chicken. Adult worms live and lay eggs in the birds trachea; the eggs get coughed out or get swallowed into the oesophagus and discarded via faeces. The eggs hatch to larvae which infect chicken or enter intermediate hosts such as beetles and earthworms. Symptoms: Difficulty in breathing and gasping for air (thus the term gapeworm), huddling, and death fue to suffocation.
b) Flat worms
Tape worm (Raillietina tetragona) infests scavenging chicken. The worms release the eggs free or retained in a segment. Beetles and snails ingest the eggs. The eggs develop in these intermediate hosts infecting chicken that feed on them. Prevention occurs by using clean containers. Symptoms: Stunting, Thirst, poor health, low egg production and death of young birds on poor diets.
Prevention and cure: Intestinal worms in chicken are controlled by regular deworming with recommended deworming medicine usually mixed with drinking water. c) External parasites
The most common external parasites include lice, mites, fleas and ticks. They infest poultry houses and breed in cracks of the buildings. Infestation occurs through infected birds and pets, and affect all ages of birds but are severe in chicks.
Prevention can be done by maintaining cleaniliness of the poultry nests and houses and sealing cracks in the walls and on the floors.
Lice can be seen around eyes and nose. They lay eggs on the feathers and suck blood from chicken, causing discomfort.
Mites live in cracks in the poultry houses, not on the host. They suck blood from the birds at night and remain in the cracks during the day. In severe infections, birds become anaemic. Fleas can be seen on the belly. They suck blood from birds after which they drop and lay eggs in the litter. The eggs mature to adult fleas, which can survive for up to a month without feeding. Attacks all ages any time, but occurs more frequently in humid chicken houses with bad hygiene. Adult birds are clearly disturbed and spend a lot of time pecking and polishing feathers. Young chicks may die from anemia. If not treated, mites, lice, fleas, ticks will cause weight loss and possibly loss of feathers due to the parasites sucking blood and to skin irritation Treatment: Spray or dust with pesticides, ashes, and oil. Ashes and sulphur powder may be used where the hens do dust bathing. Nests may be protected by putting a few tobacco leaves mixed with ashes in the nests.
External parasites (behaviour and parasites) Scaly legs Scaly leg is caused by an external parasite irritating the skin on the birds’ legs.Symptoms: Legs clearly have scales and wounds and may become crippled in their appearance. Treatment: Dip the legs daily in kerosene, oil or in an insecticide until the scales disappear.
5) Viral diseases
Viruses can be prevented by vaccination. They are the smallest germs and can cause incurable diseases. There is no treatment for virus diseases.
a) Newcastle diseaseNewcaste is the most economically important and the only notifiable disease in chicken. Often 30-80% of the flock dies. It is spread by dogs, birds, wild birds and man. There is no cure, affected chicken must be killed in a most humane way. Prevention occurs only by early vaccination. Symptoms: Respiratory stress, lack of appetite, green diarrhoea, nervous symptoms and high mortality. Death can also be sudden without symptoms.
Newcastle disease in a broiler chick: twisted head (c) L. Mahin, Wikipedia
b) Fowl PoxFowl pox is a chronic disease in adult birds and deadly among chicks and growers. It is caused by Pox virus and is transmitted by mosquito bites and mechanically through broken skin. Prevention occurs by clearing bushes.
Symptoms: Pimples or scabs on the birds combs, wattle and eyelids, high body temperature a watery discharge from eyes, difficulty in breathing indicated by whizzing sound and loss of appetite, tiredness followed by sudden death.
A hen with fowl pox pimples on the comb (c) Henry Ondwasy, KARI
c) Infectious bronchitisThis is a contagious disease, acute in chicks and chronic in adult birds. Transmission occurs through faeces from sick birds, contamination of litter and by air. Symptoms: Sneezing, watery eyes, nasal discharge, wet droppings, poor egg shell with no death unless from secondary infection. Chicks gasp and cough, breath noisily, have watery eyes and nostrils, become depressed and huddle. Mortality can be as high as 25%.
d) Avian Influenza (Fowl plague)This is an acute disease in chicken, turkeys, ducks and wild birds. The disease is found naturally in ducks and other waterfowl, and may spread as a highly contagious and potentially dangerous form to chickens. Infects through contaminated feed and drinking water from ponds. Transmission occurs through contaminated faeces, water and air. Symptoms: Respiratory distress, sneezing, swollen head and face, emaciation and nervous disorder. High flock mortality, blue and swollen comb and wattles, Infected birds must be destroyed and location of infection quarantined. Always call a veterinarian if you suspect AI. Do not eat infected birds.
e) Infectious Bursa Disease (Gumboro)This disease is common in hatcheries. It affects young chicken 2 to 6 weeks old and it is rare in indigenous birds. Transmission occurs through feed, water and faeces. Symptoms: Diarrhoea, sleepiness and depression, ruffled feathers and trembling of the head. Mortality is between 50% and 80%. The disease weakens the immun-system, making the birds more susceptible to other infections. It can be controlled by vaccinating the chicken when they are 2 to 6 weeks old though drinking water.
Death caused by infectious bursa disease. (c) Henry Ondwasy, KARI
f) Marek’s disease Seen only in birds older than 16 weeks. Initially the birds may show paralysis of one or both wings. Or one or both legs might be paralysed. The disease is a virus, so there is no treatment, but commercial vaccines are available.
g) Mycotoxicosis (fungal poisoning)Symptoms: Weakness, pale combs. Treatment: Supplementary vitamins. Prevention: Proper storage of feed to prevent growth of the fungi producing mycotoxins, the cause of the disease.
Supplementary feeding in particular for young chicks, is one of the most important means of preventing diseases.
Store feeds in a dry and clean place always to avoid contamination and spread of diseases.
Provide your poultry with clean water daily to avoid the spread of waterborne diseases, such as Fowl Cholera. Daily addition of EM to drinking water has been shown to help prevent diseases.
Why feed indigenous chicken?
Feeding is important so as to increase the production of meat and eggs from indigenous chicken. A lack of feed or water will reduce resistance to diseases and parasites, and subsequently increase flock mortality. It is important to note that even small flocks of indigenous chicken will starve during certain periods of the year (e.g drought, planting season when birds are confined, floods etc) when left to scavenge without supplementary feeding.
Egg production and growth are limited by access to feed and genetic potential. Local birds are the best converters of feed to eggs under fluctuating environmental conditions, although their production potential is much lower than genetically improved breeds.You may easily increase egg production and growth of local birds by giving supplementary feeds. Improved breeds also perform well under village conditions when given a steady supply of feeds. It is important to always start by making calculations of the cost-benefit and judge the risks involved before choosing the quantity and type of feed.
Feeds and feeding will vary between free range, semi-intensive and intensive systems of poultry production basically due to profitability. In the following we will focus on free-range and on semi-intensive systems and discuss the importance of feed requirements, feed types, feed mixing, feeding equipment, feed storage, feeding and watering.
What to feed?
Chicken feeder (c) PSDA 2011
The composition and availability of feeds will vary, depending on the season, locality and production system. Poultry need feed containing energy and protein, as well as vitamins, minerals and water. The need for feed will change, depending on the age and status (chicken, grower, egg layer, broody hen) of the bird. The cheapest – and also often the best – way to supplement the diet of your poultry, is to use local resources. However, many vitamins and nutrients are destroyed if the feed is stored too long or under sub-optimal conditions, e.g. high humidity and heat. Knowledge of feed quality and sources of different feed types is important for feed safety.
If you have free range chicken, temporarily confined during planting season and during night, you can supply grains, by-products of grains or tubers besides the green forage and seeds they collect during scavenging. With a variety of feeds (plants and insects) also requirements for minerals, trace-elements and vitamins are likely to be met. Water should be available at all times. Young chicken should be fed easy to digest feeds that are energy and protein rich.
Scavenging
In a free-range or semi-intensive poultry rearing system, adult hens and cocks ought to be given enough time and space for scavenging in the surroundings daily. The best time for scavenging is early morning and late afternoon when there are plenty of insects and less heat. Chicks below six weeks of age should be confined. Supplementary feeds should be offered in the morning and evening when the birds come back for the night. Ad libitum clean water should be provided in shady areas during the day to avoid heat stress. If your production is based on improved breeds or hybrids for egg production, different types of commercial diets may be offered. These are divided into three distinct categories, with decreasing amount of protein as follows;
A starter diet or (chick mash): high in protein (18%,11,8 Mj ME); offered from day old up to 8 weeks; Each chick will consume 2 kg during this period
A growers’ diet/mash: lower in protein (14%, 11,6 Mj ME); offered from 9 weeks up to 18 weeks; Each grower will consume about 8 kg during this period
A layer diet/mash: medium in protein (14%, 11,2 Mj ME); offered to hens from 19 to 75 weeks. Allow 120 g of feed per bird per day. Hens consume about 45 kg of feed annually
Note: The above quantities are a guide and will vary depending on the adult weight of the chicken, the feed quality and level of feed wastage.
Guide to feed management
Before buying, mixing, and storing feeds, it is important to understand some underlying principles of good feed management.
It is crucial to:
Use local feed ingredients for local birds;
Know or estimate the quality or feed value and prices of each feed ingredient;
Buy missing feed ingredients, such as vitamins or protein sources locally from a stockist;
Change the feed formulation depending on availability, quality or feed value and price;
Reduce the flock size under free-range production system during lean seasons and when feed cost increases;
When changing feeds always do it gradually;
Avoid long storage periods;
Use locally available materials such as tins or matchboxes for quantifying the different ingredients to be mixed. Grams or percentages do not work in practice;
Store mixed feed or feed ingredients separately on a platform approx. 30 cm above the floor;
Stop the entry of rats, pigeons, or other type of birds into the feed store;
Make sufficient ventilation to ensure that feed ingredients are not wet due to humidity;
Caution; Do not use feed ingredients that are mouldy, discoloured or infested with pests.
Water
Scavenging poultry can get diseases by drinking water from small ponds or puddles, as these can transfer water borne diseases and parasites. Poultry should get clean and fresh water all the time at the same place. This makes it is easy to medicate them. Clean water should be given at least early in the morning and again in the evening when the birds are returning to the house for the night. It is important that all feeders and drinkers are kept clean to avoid disease infection through dirty feed and water.
Maize for energy(c) A. Wachira, KARI, Kenya
Sorghum for energy (c) A. Wachira, KARI, Kenya
Fish meal for protein – is not allowed in organic farming! (c) A. Wachira, KARI, Kenya
Leucaena leaves for protein and vitamin (c) A. Wachira, KARI, Kenya
Sim sim for protein (c) A. Wachira, KARI, Kenya
Green grams for protein (c) A. Wachira, KARI, Kenya
When buying commercial feeds, calculate whether it is profitable based on the market price for eggs or meat/live birds. If the product price is lower than the price of feed consumed by the birds to produce it, it is not economical to offer commercial feeds. Indigenous chicks may be offered commercial diets profitably from day old to six weeks of age.
Types of feeds
Energy feeds
As a rule 75% of a quality poultry diet is made up of energy feeds. Energy feeds are the most important feeds for maintenance requirements (e.g. body temperature, vital functions, exercise). Cereal grains, roots and tubers are the most important energy feeds. Examples of energy feeds are cereals like maize and its by-products (bran), sorghum, wheat and its by-products (bran), rice and its byproducts (bran, polishing), cassava root meal, yams and sweet potatoes.
Roots and tubers should be soaked in water for 60 minutes or cooked before drying to remove harmful substances and the proportion in the diet in general kept below 10%. Fat is also a good source of energy in particular in hot climates, as the heat produced during metabolism is less than from traditional energy feeds, e.g. cereals. Sources of fat are e.g.: tallow, lard, oil cake meals, hotel used oils and fat. Such oils and fats should only be given in small amounts, i.e. less than 10% of the total diet.
Protein
Protein is needed for growth and optimal health status. Normally no more than 20% of a poultry diet is made up of protein-rich feeds mainly due to high cost. Protein sources may originate from animals or plants. Examples of protein-rich local feeds are: Maggots, termite eggs, insects, worms, peas, beans, and oil cakes from e.g. ground nuts, cotton seeds, palm kernels, and coconuts. Animal byproducts such as meat meal or bone meal from chicken are not allowed, also fish meal is not allowed in organic farming. Synthetic amino acids are not permitted. Some harmful substances (anti-nutrients) are present in some protein-rich plants e.g. beans. As such their proportion in the diet should be low based on type and processing prior to feeding. Note that feeds processed with chemicals are not allowed in organic.
Minerals
Minerals are important for bone formation, eggshell formation and for optimal health status. The most important minerals are calcium and phosphorous. To produce strong egg shells, laying hens need free access to calcium (limestone or crushed shells). Mature birds are usually able to balance their mineral intake according to their requirements. When phosphorous rich feeds are added to the diet, they should be balanced with calcium rich feeds, since high levels of one mineral will cause deficiency of the other. Examples of sources for minerals are: bone meal, limestone and burned eggshells. The use of bone meal or eggshells is a good way of balancing calcium and phosphorus levels in the diet. Eggshells should always be scorched or cooked before re-use in diets to remove contaminants.
Vitamins
Scavenging birds get vitamins from eating green grass, vegetables, fresh cow dung and through sunlight. Vitamins A, B2, and D3 are important because many problems arise when birds are deficient. Sunlight and green grass or green fodder normally provide Vitamin A and D, whereas Vitamin B may come from fresh cow dung. Vitamin B may also be added by giving multivitamins. Additional vitamins are given in very small quantities and purchased from agrovet stores or feed stockists. Supplementary vitamins are usually not required when birds are left to scavenge. Confined or intensively management birds always need additional vitamins added into their feeds.
Simple feed mixing
It is advisable to make a semi-balanced diet for the small chicks from 0-6 weeks of age. Locally available ingredients should be dried in the shade (the sun may destroy important vitamins) and grounded in a mortar before mixing. Locally available containers such as plastic tins or matchboxes may be used for easy quantification of the different ingredients. Grams or percentages should be transferred into local quantities for field practice. Large ready-mixed quantities should only be stored, if adequate storage capacities are assured (see under “Twelve simple rules”). In general mixed feeds should not be stored for more than a few weeks to avoid contamination from mould, bacteria or rodents and to avoid losing vitamins. Above 8 weeks of age, poultry may be fed in a cafeteria system saving time and energy on mixing feeds. The cafeteria system is described below.
Table of Simple ration for supplementing local chicks from day-old to 8 weeks (total 930 g)
Ingredient
Quantity
1) Crushed maize/sorghum or millet
1 kg tin
2) Wheat/sorghum or millet bran
1 kg tin
3) Sunflower/sesame/groundnut cake
2 match boxes
4) Fishmeal/salt mix
1 match boxes
5) Sesbania/leucaena leaves
2 match boxes
Termites or maggots may also be added during the first 8 weeks. Depending on the types of crops grown in the locality cereals, oil cakes etc maybe substituted. Alternatively a commercial chick starter ration can be used from day old to 8 weeks of age. In this way you will ensure that the chicks have the daily requirements during the most vulnerable weeks.
Simple techniques for growing maggots and termites Maggots and termites are a cheap source of protein in semi-intensive poultry production systems. However, they are a supplement to other feeds. Maggots or termites should be offered to young chicks since they require quality protein sources for optimal growth
Maggots may be grown by a simple technique. Blood, offal and cow dung are mixed in a large open pot. The pot is filled with 1/3 water. Flies will lay their eggs in the mixture and maggots hatch and feed on the mixture. Leave the pot open during daytime and closed during the night. After 5 – 10 days (depending on temperature) the maggots will be ready to pupate. Collect the maggots by gently pouring water into the pot. The maggots will float and you can then wash them and feed them directly to the birds. Remember to place the pot away from public places, as the smell at times may be offensive.
Growing termites Take a pot with a short neck and a capacity of at least 10 litres. Fill it up with cow dung and straw and sprinkle a little water on content. Set the pot upside down with the opening on sandy soil. After one day and one night, the pot will be full of termites and you may empty the living contents in front of the hen house in the morning.
Other feedstuffs Algae and water plants material have been considered appropriate for feeding poultry since they provide carotenoids and other fat-soluble vitamins. The carotenoids improve the colour of the egg yolks and together with vitamin E enhance the egg quality and the viability of the hatchlings. The deeper the egg yolk colour and pigmentation, the greater is the supply with vitamin A to the consumer. Where available, the mixing of molasses with dried protein feeds have been shown to improve nutritional status of chicken.
Dung heaps from the waste of cattle, goats and sheep are excellent sources of insect protein but also may act s sources of parasites (e.g. coccidia) and other diseases.
Formulating feeds using Pearson square (Box method)
Pearson square/Box Method of formulating feed (c) A. M. Wachira, KARI, Kenya
It is possible to formulate poultry diets to balance for both energy and protein according to the requirement of specific diets i.e. Chick diets, Hens consume about 45 kg of feed annually One of the simple tools to apply is the Pearson square. It involves making corrections for basically two ingredients and not more. However, one should be conversant with the nutrient composition of the specific ingredients before applying this method.A worked example on the application of the method is indicated below Example: Soy bean meal with 45% crude protein, mixed with maize (8.5% crude protein), to obtain a 16% crude protein ration. In these calculations, the parts are by weight.
To find the right combinations, work diagonally, subtracting the smaller numbers from the bigger number: Step 1 16 – 8.5 = 7.5 Parts Soy bean meal 45 – 16 = 29 Parts of maize Total of both feeds 36.5 parts, with 7.5/36.5 (=20,5%) soy bean meal and 29/36.5 (=79,5%) maize.
Examples of home made rations
Bone and meat meal is not allowed, exchange with fish meal or beans
Bone and meat meal is not allowed, exchange with fish meal or beans
How much to feed in free range systems?
A major economic advantage of the free-range or semi-intensive production systems over the intensive systems is the ability of poultry to scavenge for in the surroundings. This so-called scavenging feed resource base (SFRB) will change over the seasons based on climate, geography and production system in the area on which the poultry scavenge for feeds. Depending on the season, the chicken may find nearly all they need in the surroundings (e.g. during harvest) or nothing (during lean season).
Table: Amount of feed at different ages of local poultry
Age (wks)
Intake/bird/day (g dry weight)
1 week
12 – 15
2 weeks
15 – 21
3 weeks
21 – 35
4 – 6 weeks
35 – 50
7 – 8 weeks
55 – 60
16 – 27 weeks
68 – 80
28 weeks
100
Limit the quantity of feed offered to the birds daily to at least 30% – 50% of their full daily intake. Allow a maximum of 30 – 40 g/bird/day from week 4 – 6 and gradually reducing the supplementary feeding. At day old to 4 weeks young chicks will receive feed according to their needs. As the birds grow, they will gradually get a smaller portion of what they need, until they only get between 1/3 and half of their needs as adults. Economic benefits are calculating the break-even point from the sale of eggs and live birds relative to the cost of disease control, housing, labour and feeds.
To ensure sustained egg production, offer feeds when the chicken need it rather than less quantities during the harvest season and more during the lean season. Reduce the flock size through selling some chicken when feed costs are high rather than reducing the amount of feed given to each bird.
How to feed?
It is important to use simple local measures to administer feeds. By using a table, you can calculate how much feed to use. Fig. shows calculated daily feed requirements based on a flock of 1 cock, 4 hens and 15 three week old chicks.
Table: Simple calculation for daily feed requirements
1 cock:
35 g. = 35
4 hens:
4 x 35 g. = 140
15 chicks:
15 x 25 g. = 375
Total
= at least 550 g per day
When using 1 kg containers (or a cup) measure the amount of feed the container holds, and then calculate the number of containers of feed needed daily. If the container holds 750 g of feed you will need to fill the container 3/4 full. To keep the birds hungry for scavenging, offer half the feed in the morning, which will be equal to a half full container. To avoid competition, feed the young chicks a little more than half in a separate shelter. Feed the hens next and finally before the feeder is empty feed the cock. When cocks are offered feed before the other birds, they over eat and leave less feed for the rest of the flock. Cocks are better at scavenging within the surrounding than the rest of the birds. Young chicks will need relatively more protein in their diet than adult birds hence the need to mix two different rations for young and adult birds, respectively. If you do not want to mix two different rations, you can alternatively give a little extra supplement of a good protein source to the young chickens, e.g. maggots and termites.
Cafeteria system
Adult birds are able to mix their own feed according to their needs. The best way to feed semi-intensively managed birds above 8 weeks of age is a cafeteria system, whereby various types of feeds are offered separately. An important condition is that feeds are palatable to the same extent. If not they will be refused even when they are needed in the ration
Feeders are divided into three compartments, enabling the poultry to choose the feed ingredient according to their needs.
In the cafeteria system, there should be at least one feeding compartment for: A. Energy rich feeds, e.g. maize, millet, sorghum. B. Protein rich feeds, e.g. beans, peas, oil cakes, maggots, termites. C. Mineral rich feeds, e.g. burned eggshells. An additional compartment for oil rich feeds may be added, e.g. tallow, oil cake meals, fish oil. By giving adult birds feeds in compartments, observe their feeding behaviour and avoid feeding unnecessary amounts and types of feed. For example, during harvest seasons you may find that they birds feed less on energy feeds in the evenings because there is plenty of cereal in the environment. You may also try out alternative feeds that the birds do not find tasteful. The cafeteria system is a good way of learning about your birds’ behaviour and taste.
Feeding Hybrid layers Hybrid layers have quite easy feeding regimes, as the feed they need is manufactured and can be ready bought. However if you want to have nice yellow eggs also green vegetables wastes and forage such as grass, lucerne or kales needs to be provided. Preferably the greens should be hung up in a string so the birds have to jump a bit to reach them. This gives both good exercise and avoids too much mess to clean up later. Yolk colour maybe influenced by the genotype and the rate of egg production but feed composition is the major influencing factor. Both natural and synthetic sources of pigmenting egg yolks are in use commercially. Feeds stabilized with antioxidants such as vitamin E and A improve yolk colour pigmentation. Feed intake of laying hens depends on the quality of the feed, the body weight, its performance and environment. The following standards maybe used as a guide when feeding birds on a layers mash (11.7 Mj ME);
1) 2 kg body weight (for maintenance) needs 65g feed, for each 100 g difference in body weight add or subtract 2.5 g feed 3) For each gram of egg weight add 1 g 4) For each degree deviating from 20 degree Celsius add 1.5 g
Example calculation: if the average weight of the layer bird is 1.8 kg, with a daily egg weight of 56 g and temperatures of 24 degree Celsius (normal room temperature), the feed required will be as follows;
1. 1.8 kg hen: 65 – (2 x 2.5 g) = 60 g 2. 56 g egg weight: 56 g 3. 24 degree Celsius: 6 g Total amount = 112 g feed per day
Type of feed
Chick mash, 0-8 weeks
Growers mash, 9-18 weeks
Layers mash, 19-75 weeks
Protein %
18
14
16
Energy in Mj/kg
11.7
11.5
11.4
Where the market demands a golden yellow egg yolk, the birds need to be provided with a scavenging area in a free range environment or provided with green leaves.
Feeding broilers (organic broilers cannot be slaughtered before 12 weeks of age) Along with their recommended broiler feed, the birds also highly appreciate additions of greens for pecking and absorption of higher amounts of vitamins. AIM: Production of big broiler capons of 2 kg live weight (1.5 kg dressed weight at 6 – 8 weeks) In order to reach this aim a feed needs to contain the following:
Feed for the first 4 weeks (1.2 kg of broiler starter): – Crude protein content greater than 22% – Crude fiber less than 6% – High energy content as close to 12.6 Mj /kg as possible
Feed for week 4-8 (3.5 kg of Broiler finisher): – Crude protein content greater than 18% – Crude fiber less than 7% – Energy content as close to 12.6 Mj/kg as possible
Feedstuff problems
Fish meal can give a fishy taste to meat and eggs and can contain excessive amounts of salt.
Cassava tubers contain cyanide, which is toxic, and the tubers must be sliced and dried in the sun before feeding.
Oil seed cakes can contain excessive amounts of oil and fibre, which lower digestibility of the feed.
Beans and peas contain a number of anti-nutritional components and should be dried in the sun or cooked for a short period (chick pea and pigeon pea are exceptions and can be fed raw after crushing)
Feeders and drinkers
Feeders and drinkers are similar across the production systems. Feeders and drinkers should always be kept clean to prevent the spread of diseases. They should be big enough for all birds of the same age to feed at the same time. One metre trough or a 35 cm (diameter) tube feeder is big enough for 20 adult birds to eat and for 40 to drink. Feeders and drinkers may easily be produced out of local materials. An empty tin placed upside down on a plate forms a drinker. By keeping the tin upside down the water is not contaminated with dirt. Make two small holes near the rim diagonal to each other. Pour clean water in the can. Put a flat plate with a small rim on top and turn the can and plate upside down, while pressing them against each other.
Gently place the drinker on the ground. The rim of the plate should be low enough for young chicks to drink, but also high enough for adult birds to dip their wattles to keep them cool during the hot weather. Usually several waterers in different sizes should be used. Ensure that feeders minimize feed wastage. Feed wastage can be minimized when feeders are not filled to the top. Fill the feeders half full and check them regularly for refills.
Automatic drinker (c) A. Wachira, KARI, Kenya
Chick drinker (c) A. Wachira, KARI, Kenya
Home made poultry drinker (c) A. Wachira, KARI, Kenya
Commercial feeders and drinkers may also be bought at the market, either in metal or plastic. However they are often expensive and normally not any better than locally produced feeders or drinkers.
