Whiteflies and black flies (Aleurocanthus woglumi)
Credit: Biovision-Infonet
Whiteflies on a mango leaf (c) A.M.Varela, icipe
Whiteflies and black flies suck sap from leaves and may weaken the plants when numbers are high. They produce large amount of honeydew where sooty mould develops. High numbers of these insects can almost blacken trees, reducing photosynthesis and may cause leaf drop debilitating the tree.
Adults are small (1-3 mm long), with 2 pairs of wings that are held roof-like over the body. They resemble very small moths.
What to do:
Conserve natural enemies. They usually provide good control of these pests. For more information on Natural enemies click here.
If necessary spray neem extracts. Neem products inhibit growth and development of immature stages, repel whitefly adults and reduce egg laying.
Close-up of galls caused by gall flies on mango leaf (Erosomyia mangifera). (c) A.M.Varela, icipe
It is a small midge about 1 to 2 mm long with long legs and antenna. The flies lay eggs on young leaves. Eggs hatch into maggots that bore into the leaf tissue to feed. Their feeding induces formation of small galls, which look like pimples on the leaves. Mature maggot leaves the galls and drop to the soil to pupate, leaving small holes on the leaves. These holes may serve as entrance for fungal infections. Leaves may be covered with galls and the surrounding tissue may die. Heavy infestation may lead to premature leaf drop.
What to do:
Conserve natural enemies. Mango galls are usually kept under control by parasitic wasps and no control measures are needed.
In other countries, when infestations are heavy, the soil around the tree is flooded before flowering to reduce emergence of adult gall flies from the soil.
Mango fruit fly(Ceratitis cosyra) (c) R.C. Copeland, icipe
Maggots of fruit fly dropping out of mango fruit to pupate (c) A. M. Varela, icipe.
Fruit flies lay eggs under the skin of mature green and ripening fruit. Some fruit flies such as Bactrocera invadens, a new species recently introduced into East Africa, also lay eggs on small fruit. The eggs hatch into whitish maggots within 1 to 2 days. The maggots feed on the fruit flesh and the fruit starts to rot. After 4 to 17 days, the maggots leave the fruit, making holes in the skin.
Adult fruit flies are about 4-7 mm long.
What to do:
Collect and destroy all fallen fruits at least twice a week during the fruit season.
Do not put collected damaged fruits into compost heaps. Instead, burn them or bury them at least 50 cm deep, so that the fruit flies cannot reach the soil surface.
Remove fruits with dimples and those that ooze clear sap. This method is more laborious than picking the rotten fruits from the ground, but it is also more effective.
Whenever possible, wrap fruit in newspaper or paper bags to prevent fruit flies from laying eggs on the fruit. This has to be done well before the fruit matures.
Pick overripe fruits, as they attract fruit flies.
Physical methods include fruit fly traps and fruit bagging
(c) A. M. Varela, icipe
The trap can be made with plastic bottle with 4 holes evenly spaced on its sides (so that fruit flies are trapped), a lid, a wire hanger. The trap is filled with bait (vinegar and soap or peace of banana) and hanged on the tree about 2-4 m above the ground within the canopy layer, in a semi-shaded spots, preferably in the upwind part of the canopy. The trap should be hanged in such a manner that branches and leaves are nearby, but not touching the trap. Traps should be hanged 10 – 50 m apart, depending on the bait used. Collect catches weekly and sieve them.
Mango ( Mangifera indica) (c) A. M. Varela & A.A. Seif, icipe
1. Geographical Distribution in Africa
Geographical Distribution of Mango in Africa.Updated July 2019. Source FAOSTAT
2. General Information and Agronomic Aspects
The Mango fruit is one of the most important tropical fruits. It is native to the Indian Monsoon region and has been cultivated for the last 4000 years. It was introduced to East Africa in the 14th century. Mango has now become an important domestic and export crop in Kenya and Tanzania.
Mango has many uses: ripened fruits are eaten fresh and used to make juice or marmalade. They can also be dried and made into candy. All remains from the fruits can be used to feed animals. The young leaves for example are a very good cattle feed.
Cultivars
A wide range of mango cultivars is grown in Kenya. Local varieties include:
Apple, Batawi, Boribo, Dodo, Kiarabu, Kiimji, Kitovu, Mayai, Ngowe, Peach, Sabre and Shikio Punda. Among these, Apple and Ngowe are in high demand for local and export markets, particularly in the Middle East. Apple, Haden, Keitt, Kent, Ngowe and Tommy Atkins are important cultivars for the export markets.
Climate conditions, soil and water management
Mango grows best in tropical summer rain regions, at temperatures between 24degC and 28degC. Once a mango tree is well established, it is very resistant to drought. Mango needs a dry period or cooler temperatures to start blossoming and produce fruits. Rainfall during flowering seriously affects fruit setting. In the tropical regions that do not vary in rainfall or temperature, the trees will not produce any fruits. Mangoes grow well below an altitude of 1000 m. Above 1200 m production is often poor, but some cultivars such as “Sabre” and “Harris” are reported to yield well at up to 1800 m.
Mango will grow on a rainfall as little as 650 mm per year, but do better on higher rainfall of around 1500 mm. Mango grow in most soils if they are well drained. Ideal for good growth is a deep (at least three m), fertile soil. Avoid poor, shallow, rocky and alkaline soils. A pH of 5.5 to 7.5 is desirable. Young trees should be irrigated as soon as the dry season starts. Older trees need a dry period of at least three months to start flowering. When the fruit is developing, it is very important to water the plant regularly. In Kenya, the major production season is December to March.
Propagation and planting
Mango is propagated both vegetatively and by seed. Nurserymen and farmers should be aware that not all cultivars propagated by seed will produce seedlings true to the parent tree. Two groups can be differentiated:
Polyembryonic cultivars from seed are generally true to the parent tree and they include local cultivars like “Batawi”, “Boribo”, “Dodo”, “Ngowe”, “Peach” and “Sabre”. In addition to the sexual seedling (which has to be culled out), seeds of these cultivars produce up to 5 nucellar embryos, each genetically identical to the parent tree.
Monoembryonic cultivars like “Haden”, “Kent”, “Tommy Atkins” and “Van Dyke” can only prppagate true-to-type by using vegetative methods. Vegetative propagation has many advantages (e.g. early bearing, smaller trees, etc) and should be encouraged. For this purpose, rootstock seedlings must be made available. “Dodo”, “Peach” and “Sabre” are commonly used rootstocks in Kenya.
Mango seeds quickly loose their viability. Use healthy, fresh seeds from well-grown, mature trees. Wash the seeds and dry them in the shade for a few days. Sow them at a spacing of 15 x 30 cm and five cm deep. Place them on their sides; the most prominently curved edge upwards, so that they produce a straight stem. To speed up germination, the hard husk can be removed before sowing. The best place to cultivate seedlings is in half-shadow. Seeds will sprout in 1 to 2 weeks and, as soon as the first flush of growth hardens (about 4 weeks later and about 10 cm high), they are transplanted into containers (about 18 x 24 cm). Plants are ready for grafting when they have reached pencil-thickness at about 20 cm above soil level. Cleft graft with scion of improved cultivars. Sources of scions of improved cultivars in Kenya include Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) (Embu, Mtwapa, Thika), prison farms or any farm with the desired cultivars. Shade the grafted plants and water frequently. Grafted seedlings are ready for transplanting about 4 months after grafting.
Select the site for the orchard carefully. Deep soil cultivation by ploughing is recommended. Clear the field of trees, bushes and weeds. Transplanting should be done at the beginning of the rains. The planting hole should be 60 x 60 cm and 100 cm deep. Under dry conditions, the hole should be bigger (about 90 x 90 cm and 100 cm deep). The spacing is 9 x 9 to 14 x 14 m between trees depending on variety and growth habit of the mango variety chosen. Mix a minimum of two buckets of good compost and a handful of Mijingu rock phosphate with the dug out soil, before returning the soil to the hole along with the young mango plant. Firm the soil around the plant. Water well and mulch. Irrigation should only be necessary to see the young tree through the first year.
Husbandry
Keep the area directly under the tree canopy free from weeds. During the first five years, intercropping with annual crops is recommended to maximise income until an economical mango yield is achieved. In young plantations mulching around the tree helps to suppress weeds and to retain soil moisture. Mango trees normally need pruning in order to shape young trees. Smoking of mango trees, apart from controlling pests also induces good flowering.
Formative pruning is done in the first years of the young tree to guide the tree into the desired shape. In the first year, cap the seedling at 1 m height in order to produce a spreading framework of branches. In the second year, prune to leave 4 to 5 well spaced branches to be the future main branches. Benefits from pruning:
Fruit is produced on the outside of parts of the tree
Fruit hold to maturity on the trees
Open tree structure allows for easy harvesting
Tree produces larger fruits
Crops can be grown under the trees
Tree benefits from natural conditions of sun and wind movement. This helps in reducing relative humidity within the canopy and also creating environment less conducive to disease development.
It controls tree height and prevents excessive spreading of limbs.
Structural pruning should be done after fruit harvest: The canopy should be at least one m above the ground. Remove all dead branches and all sucker branches from the main structural branches. Prune canopy to allow sunlight to penetrate and reach the ground under the tree.
Improve fruit production by:
Keeping the orchard area clean
Removing all ripe fruit and weeds from around the tree
Removing 1/3 of fruit after fruit set to get better size of remaining fruit.
Mango trees are susceptible to wind damage. Therefore, they should be protected from strong winds by windbreaks on the upwind side of prevailing winds.
Weeding
Clear excessive vegetation regularly from beneath the trees and use as mulch.
Mango fruits and farmers inspecting a mango tree (c) A. M. Varela & A.A. Seif, icipe
Harvesting
Flowering usually begins after a period of dormancy due to cool or dry weather. Smallholder mango farmers usually induce flowering with smoke.
A mango plantation will supply its first commercially marketable amount of fruit around 4 to 5 years after being planted, and are in good production after eight years reaching full maturity at some 20 years of age. One tree should produce 200 to 500 fruits per year and varieties like “Dodo” and “Boribo” can produce 1000 fruits per year. Most varieties show biennial tendencies in production and a poor harvest may follow a good one. Selection should be based on varieties showing annual bearing tendencies.
Harvest mango fruit at the mature-green stage, when they are hard and green. A mature fruit has well-developed “cheeks”. Pick fruit by hand. Clip them off with a long stalk of about 2 to 3 cm and pack the fruit in a single layer with the stalks facing downwards in the box or crate. It is important that the latex dripping from the stalk drops onto an absorbent material (for example tissue paper placed at the bottom of the container). Although mature mangoes ripen fairly rapidly, they have a poor tolerance to temperatures below 10degC, especially when freshly picked. Ripe fruits can, however, be stored as low as 7 to 8deg C without developing chilling injury.
Yield
15 tons/ha per year can be achieved from the 7th year onwards if proper husbandry is followed.
Post-harvest treatment
Hot water treatment (HWT) is an effective post-harvest treatment method for mango. Dipping newly harvested fruits into hot water minimises fruit fly damage and anthracnose. The fruit is perishable and should be marketed as quickly as possible.
Mango hygiene by smoking
Mango smoking reduces insect population drastically and improves fruit setting. Smoke pots with holes in the bottom for air intake, containing wood shavings or sawdust with a topping of aromatic herbs (lemongrass etc) are hung at strategic places within the mango tree and the sawdust lit to produce a good amount of smoke which chases insects away from the tree.
Mango hygeine by smoking (c) A. M. Varela & A.A. Seif, icipe
Another option is to place dry grass on the ground below the tree in a position where the wind can blow maximum smoke into the top of the tree, cover it with green aromatic leaves like lantana etc and lit the grass to produce smoke.
Smoking of mango trees is reported both by Kenya Institute of Organic Farming (KIOF) and Meru Herbs Farmers, Kenya to be very effective in insect control.
Bamboo plays a vital role in protection of soil and water resources in forested catchment areas. In recent times, bamboo is increasingly becoming important as a source of materials for construction, cottage industry and biomass energy. Increased demand for bamboo resources cannot be met by bamboo from its natural populations. One of the options for increasing bamboo resource in Kenya is through domestication and introduction of the species on farms. Currently, the central highlands eco-region is facing a shortage of bamboo seedlings. This leaflet therefore aims to provide simple instructions on how to raise bamboo seedlings through different methods. Procedures of bamboo planting in the field are also highlighted.
The species forms the bamboo zone in moist highlands at 2,400 – 3,000 m. Found in the Timboroa Plateau and on Mts Kenya and Elgon and on Loita Hills and the Mau Range.
General Information about the Tree:
The Maasai make snuff containers from the stems. Plants die down after flowers and seeds are formed. All bamboos belong to the grass family
Bamboo seedlings can be raised from culm (stem), cuttings, seeds, wildings offsets and by tissue culture.
Propogation from culm (stem) cuttings
2-3 year old culms should be selected based on the colour of the stem. Young culms for most bamboos have a distinctive sheen (shine) which fades with age.
Culms should be cut using a sharp panga just above the last node at the base approximately 30 cm from the ground.
Prepare single , double or triple node cuttings. A whole culm can also be used as a cutting.
Figure 1. Layering culm cuttings
Holes should be drilled at the internode as shown in Figure 1 using a sharp panga or hack saw.
The part of the culm used should have live buds (eyes)
Use sand mixed with a sub soil at a ratio 1:1 without manure/humus as a rooting medium.
Lay the cuttings in a germination bed. Note cuttings should be planted the same day they are harvested.
Use Anatone hormone to stimulate rooting. Prepare the hormone by mixing 3 grms Anatone with 50 its of water.
Pour the hormone mixture into the holes.
Cover the culms with the rooting media
Watering of the cuttings should be done in the morning and the evenings
After a period of 3 months the cuttings should have developed roots and shoots
The cuttings should be carefully removed and transferred into the large sized potting tubes (Plate 1 )
Plate 1. Root culm cuttings in plastic tubes
• In total it takes about six months for the seedling to be ready for field planting (Plate 2).
Plate 2: Bamboo seedlings ready for field planting
• Multiplying planting materials from rooted cutting through splitting to build planting stock in the nursery can be undertaken every three weeks (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Multiplying bamboo planting materials from rooted cutting through splitting
Propagation by Seed
Flowering is rare in bamboo, but when it occurs, seeds produced can be carefully harvested, collected and processed for raising seedlings.
• Due to poor viability of bamboo seed, it is best to sow the seed immediately after collection.
• Sow seeds in the nursery bed or in polyethylene containers filled with a mixture of subsoil and sand in ratio of 1:1.
• Prevent direct sunlight by providing partial shading.
• Water the seeds twice a day.
• The seeds take about three weeks to germinate.
• Transplanting should be done once the germinants attain a height of 3 cm into small or medium size polyethylene tubes.
• Tend the seedlings for 8-12 months in the nursery to reach good-field planting size.
• Seedlings raised from seeds ready for field planting can be multiplied through splitting after every three weeks to raise enough seedlings for field planting (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Multiplying nursery materials from seedlings
Propagation by Wildlings
Wildlings are seedlings germinated in the wild from seeds.
• Uproot the wildlings carefully to avoid damaging the roots.
• Once collected, the widlings should be kept in moist containers in the field and transferred to nursery.
• Pot the wildlings into small or medium size polyethylene tubes.
• Tend the wildlings for 8 months in the nursery to reach good-field planting size.
• Seedlings raised from wildlings ready for field planting can be multiplied through splitting after every three weeks to raise enough seedlings for field planting (Figure 3).
Propagation using Offsets
A bamboo culm with rhizome attached is called an offset (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Offsets with aerial culms
Generally offsets are bulky and therefore expensive in terms of labour and transport . Using offsets, a bamboo plant can be established much quicker and in two years after planting, mature culms can be harvested from the new clump.
• Get offsets at the onset of rains and just before the emergence of new shoots.
• Dig out 1-2 years old offsets without injuring the buds.
• Transport the offsets to the planting site without any delay (preferably the same day or the next day) and plant immediately.
• The planting holes for the offsets should be 60 cm x 60 cm and at a spacing of 5 m x 5 m for medium sized species and 7 m x 7 m for large sized bamboo species (Figure 5).
Figure 5: Planting hole sizes for seedlings raised from seeds and wildlings, offsets and cuttings
• The offsets should be protected from livestock and spot weeded.
Important Precautions!
• Offsets taken late in the rainy season after the new growth has started tend to fail once planted out. Collect offsets as early as possible.
• The younger the rhizome, the more the growth vigour in the buds.
• Larger diameter materials are better in establishment and survival.
• The larger the aerial culm, the better the chances of survival.
• Avoid damaging the junction of the culm and rhizome and the dormant buds.
• Do not delay planting offsets after digging them out. Early planted offsets root easily.
Propagation through Tissue Culture
Tissue culture can be used in advanced laboratory for rapid multiplication. The initial attempts that have been undertaken in our laboratories are promising and working jointly with our partners some positive outcomes will be realised.
Field Planting
Planting of container or potted seedlings should be done immediately at the start of the rainy season.
• For offsets removed from the forest, planting must be done the same day with a maximum delay of one night.
• The size of planting holes for seedlings raised from seeds and wildlings should be 30 cm x 30 cm while the holes for those from offsets and cuttings should be 60 cm x 60 cm (Figure 5)
Advantages and disadvantage of various types of bamboo propagation planting materials
Culm (stem) Cuttings
Advantages
• Rapid multiplication for some species
Type guaranteed
• Fast growth
Disadvantages
• Shorter life cycle than seed produced plants
• Long time needed to propagate large quantities of planting material
• Bulky plants hence high logistical costs
• Large propagation area needed
• Some species are difficult to propagate e.g.
Yushania alpina
Seeds
Advantages
• New generation (long life)
• Diversity of genotypes
• Low cost
• Small plants easy to transport to the field
• Opportunity for selection and macro proliferation
Disadvantages
• Limited viability
• Long time needed before plants are ready for planting
Offsets
Advantages
Quality guaranteed
• Type guaranteed
• Success rate high with most species
• Opportunity for selection and macro proliferation
Disadvantages
Bulky seedlings
• Labor intensive
• Long time needed to propagate large quantities of planting material
• High logistical costs
• Large propagation area needed
• Shorter life cycle than seed produced plants
• Limited clonal diversity
Tissue Culture
Advantages
Mass production
• True-to-type plants
• Vigorous plants with multiple new shoots
• Very fast growth and high biomass production
• Small and vigorous planting materials
• Logistical advantages
Disadvantages
Limited clonal diversity
• Shorter life cycle than seed produced plants
• High investment needed for propagation
• Require large orders to justify investment
Bamboo Products:
Bamboo may be used as fodder.
Making of furniture
Source of poles for construction, utensils, food (shoots), fencing, and handicraft, (basketry)
Services:
Ornamental
Soil conservation
3. Pests and Diseases
There is no information about the disease and pests that affect A. alpine. It is not a serious problem though.
4. Information Source Links
Maundu P. and Bo Tengnas. (2005) Useful trees and shrubs for Kenya, World AgroforestryCentre. www.worldagroforestrycentre.or
By Gordon Sigu, Bernard Kamondo, Paul Tuwei, Dorothy Ochieng and Josphine Wanjiku from KEFRI
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KENYA FORESTRY RESEARCH INSTITUTE Central Highlands Eco-region Research Programme
Credit: World Agro Forestry Local names: Amharic (omedla); Dutch (Australiese Swarthout); English (Tasmanian blackwood,swamp blackwood,blackwood acacia,blackwood,Australian blackwood); French (acacia a bois noir); German (Schwarzholz Akazie); Italian (acacia nera australiana); Spanish (Aromo negro)
Botanic Description: Acacia melanoxylon is a tree 6-45 m tall, 1.8 m in girth, with an erect bole up to 25 m, usually branching a short distance from the ground; crown dense, of characteristic shape; branchlets smooth or densely hairy, angular, soon becoming round and downy; bark dark grey, rough, longitudinally and transversely furrowed.
Foliage olive green or grey-green, consisting of phyllodes 4-16 x 6-25 mm, glabrous, with 3-5 main longitudinal nerves, main nerves anastomosing to form a netlike reticulum, ending in a small, blunt point and tapering at the base into a short, thick stalk; gland 1-10 mm from base; leaves found only in juvenile stage; juvenile foliage with feathery leaflets.
Inflorescence mostly 3-5 headed racemes, 6-40 mm long, of 3-5 (max. 8) flowers, shorter than phyllodes; flowers creamy white, in small, round heads; peduncles branched, 4.5-13 mm long.
Pods flat, red-brown, smooth, curved, openly coiled or twisted, 3-15 cm long, 3.5-8 (max. 10) mm wide, leathery to subwoody, irregularly and very slightly constricted between seeds, with thickened margins; seeds shiny, black, oval, longitudinal in pod; stalk long, conspicuous, crinkled, flattened, orange-red or pink, almost completely encircling the seed in a double fold.
The generic name ‘acacia’ comes from the Greek word ‘akis’, meaning ‘point’ or ‘barb’. The specific name is derived from Greek ‘melanos’-black and ‘xylon’-wood.
Biology: Flowering is variable throughout the species range. In the northern part of Australia, flowering tends to be in the late winter-spring while in the southern part, in the spring-summer. Ripe seeds are available in the summer-autumn with mid-February peak and little seed is retained on branches beyond April. Insects pollinate the flowers.
Ecology: A. melanoxylon withstands frost. It grows in cool, temperate rainforests, open forests of the tablelands and coastal escarpments. It performs well in transitional to wet montane habitats.
Biophysical Limits: Altitude: 1500-2300 m, Mean annual temperature: 6-19 deg. C, Mean annual rainfall: 750-2300 mm
Soil type: A. melanoxylon grows best in rich, saline, deep, fertile loams, forest Podsols and alluvials. It also grows on a wide range of Podsols, krasnozems, sandy loams and alluvials and will also tolerate wet, nearly swampy soil.
Documented species distribution: Native: Australia
Exotic:Albania, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Greece, India, Italy, Kenya, Malta, Papua New Guinea, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Uruguay
Products:
Fodder: The leaves can supply about 50-80% dry matter requirement of livestock.
Fuel: A. melanoxylon is a good source of firewood and charcoal.
Timber: The moderately heavy, light to dark brown, strong wood that is moderately resistant to termites is used for railway coaches, cabinet work, furniture, boat building, bear casks, plywood and tennis racquets.
Poison: The wood contains acamelin and 2,6-dimethoxyl-4 benzoquinone that cause may allergic contact dermatitis and bronchial asthma in people working with the wood.
Services: Erosion control: A. melanoxylon is planted on denuded hilltops to stabilize them.
Reclamation: A. melanoxylon grows well on residue from tin sluicing operations. Shade or shelter: The tree casts a useful shade and acts as a windbreak.
Nitrogen fixing: A. melanoxylon is nodulated; nodules on seedlings are light coloured, round and smooth; those on mature trees are multi-lobed, dark brown and wrinkled with a corky to woody surface.
Ornamental: The beautiful tree may be planted in amenity areas.
Tree Management: Growth of trees can be slow up to the height 2 m due to browsing by cattle, after which growth becomes rapid at 60 cm/year. The tree attains the height of 20 m in 30 years and coppices feebly. A mature tree 20 m tall can be lopped twice a year and will yield 100 kg of fodder per lopping.
Germplasm Management: After extraction and cleaning, the seeds can be dried in the sun before storing to a moisture content of 5-9%. Seed storage behaviour is orthodox; 12% germination following 51 years of open storage at room temperature. Viability is maintained for at least 20 years in open storage at room temperature and can be maintained for several years in hermetic storage at 10 deg. C with 5-9% mc. Mature and properly dried seeds can be stored in airtight containers at room temperature for at least 1 year, and at 10 deg. C for several years. On average, there are 64 000 seeds/kg.
Pests and Diseases: Acacia melanoxylon trees are highly susceptible to attack by Lorantheceous parasites and the fungus Armillaria mellea. Seedlings are browsed by cattle.
Sources:
Orwa C, A Mutua, Kindt R , Jamnadass R, S Anthony. 2009 Agroforestree Database:a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0 (http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sites/treedbs/treedatabases.asp)
Local names: English (Black wattle); Kamba (Munyoonyoo); Kikuyu (Muthanduku); Kisii (Omotandege).
1. Introduction
General distribution in Kenya:
It originated from Australia and it has since found its way to both temperate and cool tropical highlands.
Distribution of Acacia mearnsii in Kenya (c) Maundu P. and Bo Tengnas. (2005). Useful trees and shrubs for Kenya, World Agroforestry Centre.
General Information about the Tree:
The specific name mearnsii was taken from A.R Mearns (1856 – 1916), an American army Surgeon who collected the type specimen form a cultivated tree near Thika in Kenya and the name was published for the first time in Pl. Bequaert in 1925. It is a tree for woodlots and a potential weed on farmland which can be difficult to eradicate. It should not be intercropped with food crops; it competes for nutrients and light with them resulting in low productivity.
Biophysical Limits:
Altitude ranges between 300 and 2 440 m above sea level; Mean annual temperature of 9 – 200C; Mean annual rainfall, between 500 – 2, 050 mm annually; Soil type: A. mearnsii does well in deep, well drained, light textured and moist soils. It thrives in well-aerated, neutral to acid soils, loamy soils, soils derived from shale or slate and it is highly intolerant of alkaline and calcareous soils. Soils with lateritic pan close to the surface are the most unsuitable. It is spread in agro-ecological zones I-III
2. Propagation and Tree Management
It is propagated from seedlings and direct sowing at site. They grow faster but are short lived. They are thin if established by direct sowing at site and they don’t coppice well. A. mearnsii usually occurs in Plantation and woodlot. Harvesting of ten-year-olds result in the loss of large quantities of soil nutrients, application of lime has also been found to considerably increase productivity. Taproot development largely depends on how deep are the soils but it has the general tendency of developing a superficial lateral root system. Due to this, trees are liable to being uprooted by strong winds during the heavy rains. Products:
Fuel; though originally distributed for tannin extraction, its an important source of firewood and charcoal.
Timber; produces good quality poles, posts and tool handles.
Apiculture; produces many flowers which makes it a suitable source of bee forage.
Fibre; It produces good quality fibre (bark) and also it can be used for rayon.
Tanning; it is a source of tannin dye stuffs.
Services:
Erosion control; black wattle on slopes controls soil erosion.
Ornamental; Black wattle is an attractive tree due to profuse flowering and hence ornamental.
Shade or shelter; it is a windbreak, shade and shelter belt in plantations
Nitrogen fixation; it is an effective nitrogen fixer.
3. Pests and Diseases
In wetter conditions of above 3,000 mm of rainfall annually it is susceptible to attacks by insects and fungal diseases. Diseases and insect pests associated with black wattle include; damping-off, white grubs, grasshoppers and cutworms for S. Africa and in Australia, the leaf-eating fire blight beetle (Pyrgoides orphana) is a serious pest. Loranthus termites and a number of other insects have been identified to cause problems in Tanzania. In Brazil, beetles girdles twigs and branches causing great havoc.
4. Information Source Links
Maundu P. and Bo Tengnas. (2005). Useful trees and shrubs for Kenya, World Agroforestry Centre. ISBN-9966-896-70-8.
Orwa C, Mutua A , Kindt R , Jamnadass R, Simons A. 2009. Agroforestree Database:a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0
Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) (c) B. Navez, wikipedia.org
Tamarind (c) Bo Tengnas
Tamarind fruit (c) Bo Tengnas
Local names: Ukwaju (Bajun), Mukai (Boni), Roqa or Groha (Boran), Mkwazdu (Digo), Muthithi (Embu), Mkwaju or Kwaju fruit (Giriama), Kithumula or Kikwasu or Nthumula fruit or Nzumula fruit or Ngwasu fruit (Kamba), Lemecwhet or Lamaiyat (Kipsigis, Kumukhuwa (Luhya or Bukusu), Ochwaa or Chwaa (Luo), Oloisijoi (Maasai), Morhoqa (Malakote), Aron or Oron (Marakwet), Muthithi (Mbeere), Muthithi (Meru), Limaiyus or La
Geographical Distribution of Tamarind in Africa, Source ICRAF. Updated on 26th March 2019.
1. Introduction
Geographical distribution:
Indigenous to tropical Africa; widely used in the Sahel, India, South East Asia, the Caribbean and Central America. A very adaptable species, drought hardy, preferring semi-arid areas and wooded grasslands, tolerating salty, coastal winds, even monsoon climates. It grows in Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central Africa Republic, Chad, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Madagascar, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda. Farmers commonly cultivate it in parklands in the arid and semiarid zones of West Africa (Kalinganireet al.).
Distribution of Tamarindus indica in Kenya (c) Maundu P. and Bo Tengnas. (2005). Useful trees and shrubs for Kenya, World Agroforestry Centre
2. Description
A large tree to 30 m, with an extensive dense crown. The short bole can be 1 m in diameter. Evergreen or deciduous in dry areas. Bark: Rough, grey-brown, flaking
Leaves: Compound, on hairy stalks to 15 cm, 10-18 pairs of leaflets, dull green to 3 cm, oblong, round at the tip and base, veins raised. Young leaves ans very young seedlings and flowers are cooked and eaten as greens and in curries in India. In Zimbabwe, the leaves are added to soup and the flowers are an ingredient in salads.
Flowers: Small, in few-flowered heads, buds red, petals gold with red veins. The fruit is edible and can also be used as a sort of spice to be added to food. Fruit: Pale brown, sausage-like, hairy pods, cracking when mature to show sticky brown pulp around 1-10 dark brown angular seeds.
Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) (c) A. Bekele-Tesemma, World Agroforestry Centre
3. Propagation and Tree Management
Tamarindus indica (c) P. Maundu and B. Tengnas, World Agroforestry Centre
Uses:
Firewood, charcoal, timber (furniture, boats, general purposes), poles, food (fruit pulp for drink, fruit, spice), medicine (bark, leaves, roots, fruit), fodder (leaves, fruit), shade, ornamental, mulch, nitrogen fixation, windbreak, tannin (bark), dye and veterinary medicine.
Propagation:
Seedlings, wildings, direct sowing at site, grafting and budding for best varieties.
The tamarind becomes a fairly large tree, so keep this in mind when planting the tree. It should be planted in full sun. It is highly wind-resistant with strong, supple branches.
Tamarind may be propagated from seeds, and vegetatively by marcotting (air layering), grafting and budding. Rootsstocks are propagated from seed, which germinate within a week. Seeds retain their viability for several months if kept dry. Plant seeds 1 to 1.5cm deep in containers. Seeds should be selected from viable trees with good production and quality. Germination is best when seeds are covered by 1.5 cm loose, sandy loam or by a mixture of loam and sand.
Seedlings should attain at least 80 cm before being transplanted to their final location at the beginning of the rainy season. Seedlings should begin to produce fruit in 6 to 8 years.
Outstanding mother trees are vegetatively propagated; shield and patch budding and cleft grafting are fast and reliable methods, currently used in large-scale propagation in the Philippines. Trees can also be started from branch cuttings, and superior clones can also be grafted onto seed-propagated rootstock. Vegetatively propagated trees come into bearing within 3 to 4 years. They produce more fruits as well as more-uniform fruits than seed propagation. Trees also seem to remain smaller – making them easier to harvest and handle (ICRAF, CRFG; Lost Crops of Africa). Young trees should be planted in holes larger than necessary to accommodate the root system. They should be planted slightly higher than ground level to allow for subsequent settling of the soil and a water basin should be built around each tree to assure adequate moisture for young trees. (Morton 1987)
Products:
Food; it has many edible products – flour from seeds may be made into cake and bread, roasted seeds can be matched to groundnuts, fruit is eaten ripe and tamarind juice is just super. The pulp can also be used for souring porridge, drink, seasoning and flavoring.
Fuel; is a source of firewood and charcoal for cooking.
Medicine; leaves, twigs, bark and roots are used for medicinal purposes.
Fodder; feed for livestock.
Bee forage;
Tannin
Dye
Veterinary medicine
Services:
Shade or shelter: The extended crown of the tamarind offers shade so that it is used as a place for holding barazas. Due to its
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Pesticide Resistance is the ability of a life form to develop a tolerance to a pesticide. Pests (weeds, insects, mites, diseases, etc.) that become resistant to a pesticide will not be affected by the pesticide. When pests are resistant, it is more difficult to control the pest. Therefore, it is important to try to prevent pesticide resistance. ” class=”lexicon-term” style=”box-sizing: border-box; background-color: transparent; color: rgb(0, 136, 0); text-decoration: none; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-color: rgb(0, 136, 0); cursor: help;”>resistance to storms, it can also be used as a windbreak. It should be noted that this tree species is not compatible with other plants because of its dense shade, broad spreading crown and allelopathic effects.Boundary or barrier or support:T. indica can be used as a live fence.Ornamental: The evergreen nature and the beautiful flowers make it suitable for ornamental planting in parks, along roads and riverbanks.Nitrogen fixing
Slow growing but long lived. Pollarding, coppicing.
Seed:
350 – 1,400 seeds per kg. Germination rate around 90%. Tamarind seeds have been used in a limited way as emergency food. They are roasted, soaked to remove the seedcoat, then boiled or fried, or ground to a flour or starch (Morton, 1987).
Treatment:
Nick or soak seed in cold water for 12 hours.
Storage:
Seed can be stored for more than two years if kept in a dry, cool and insect-free place, because seeds are susceptible to attack by weevils.
Husbandry
Young trees are pruned to allow three to five well spaced branches to develop into the main scaffold structure of the tree. Maintenance pruning only is required after that to remove dead or damaged wood (CRFG). Remarks: The dark brown heartwood is hard and heavy, well grained and easy to polish. The fruit pulp is rich in vitamin C. The fruit has many uses and important for nutrition in many parts of the world, including India. It is budded and grafted on a large scale in the Philippines. Recommended for homesteads.
4. Pests and Diseases
The tamarind tree is seldom affected by pests and diseases. Ripe fruit in humid climates is readily attacked by beetles and fungi so mature fruit should be harvested and stored. The most serious pests of the tamarind are:
Scale insects; (Aonidiella orientalis, Aspidiotus destructor and Saisetia oleae), mealy-bugs (Nipaecoccusviridis and Planococcus lilacinus), and a borer (Pachymerus gonagra) are the most serious pests of the tamarind. The minor ones include; lac insects, and bagworms.
Beetle larvae may attack and damage tree branches as seen in Brazil, while in Florida and Hawaii beetles attack ripe pods. In China termites have been seen to attack the tree.
Larvae of the groundnut bruchid beetle are serious pests that attack the fruit and seed an in some seasons, fruit borers may inflict serious damage to maturing fruits causing a great reduction in marketable yields.
Diseases which have been reported are leaf spot, powdery mildews, a sooty mould, stem disease, stem, root and wood rot, stem canker, a bark parasite and a bacterial leaf-spot.
5. Information Source Links
Bekele-Tesemma, B. (2007). Useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia. World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi, Kenya. ISBN 92-9059-2125 www.worldagroforestry.org
ICRAF The World Agroforestry Centre. Agroforestry Tree Database. A tree species reference and selection guide- Tamarindus indica.www.worldagroforestry.org
Iwu, M. M. (1993). Handbook of African Medicinal Plants. CRC PressConsumer . ISBN 084934266X
Kalinganire, A.; Weber, J.C.; Uwamariya, A. and Kone, B. Improving Rural Livelihoods through Domestication of Indigenous Fruit Trees in the Parklands of the Sahel. World Agroforestry Centre. fruit trees Ch 10 4/9/07 13:55 Page 186 www.worldagroforestrycentre.org
Maundu, P. and Tengnas, B. (2005). Useful trees and shrubs for Kenya. World Agroforestry Centre. ISBN: 9966-896-70-8 www.worldagroforestry.org
Morton, J. F. (1987). Fruits of Warm Climates. Miami, FL. ISBN: 0-9610184-1-0. Distributed by Creative Resource Systems, Inc. Box 890, Winterville, N.C. 28590 ISBN 978-0961018412 https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/index.html
National Research Council. 2008. Lost Crops of Africa: Volume III: Fruits. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Available online: www.nap.edu
Plant Cultures. Exploring plants and people. www.kew.org
Local Names: Turkana (Eterai); Somali (Mathenge), Mathenge (Kenya)
1. Introduction
General Distribution:
It is native to Argentina, Chile, Peru, and Uruguay but now is cultivated all over the tropics. In Kenya, it is distributed in Baringo, Wajir, Magadi, Mandera and Turkana.
Distribution of Prosopis chilensis in Kenya (c) Maundu P. and Bo Tengnas. (2005). Useful trees and shrubs for Kenya, World Agroforestry Centre.
General Information about the Tree:
Since the tree has become a weed in wetter areas, planting in cultivated areas should be avoided. There are about 44 mesquites, most of which are found in the warmer parts of the Americas and a few in Asia and Africa. A number of them are terrible weeds. Prosopis .spp, generally referred to as mesquites, have demonstrated their invasiveness in Kenya especially in irrigation schemes in hot areas.
Biophysical Limits:
Prosopis is drought resistant and grows on sandy to sandy-clay soils to riverine clay/ sandy soils. It is tolerant to extreme temperatures, severe drought, overgrazing and waterlogging but is sensitive to weed competition while young. It does well in altitude ranges of 0 to 1,500 m above sea level. It does well in agro-ecological zones IV – VII.
2. Propagation and Tree Management
Found in Enrichment/ agroforestry systems, prosopis can be propagated by seedlings or direct sowing at site. They are fairly fast growing even in dry conditions. Coppicing and pruning can be employed in management. Leaves and pods can be lopped for goats.
Products:
Food: The pods are eaten by the native people (Northern Argentina), especially as ground flour.
Fodder: The pods and not the leaves are readily eaten by livestock. They have as high as 35% sugar content and contain 10 – 12% crude protein. Seeds are sometimes ground in a concentrate for animal feeds. Large trees, 40 cm in basal diameter and 7 m in canopy diameter, may produce 40 kg of pods under optimal condition.
Apiculture: P. chilensis is a good source of nectar and pollen. A pale amber-coloured honey of medium density and good flavour is produced in abundance. Its flowering season is short and therefore it is not able to support a large swarm of bees throughout the year.
Fuel: When burnt P. chilensis ignites readily, has a high calorific value, emits intense heat, makes enduring embers and leaves little ash. The wood makes good charcoal and could be exploited commercially to supply industrial and domestic demand using portable kilns.
Fibre: Wood yields sulphate pulp for writing and printing works.
Timber: P. chilensis wood is relatively dense (about 700-800 kg/m3). It is valued for furniture, doors, cobblestones and parquet floors. The wood has a low olumetric shrinkage hence joints in furniture have much less tendency to open during conditions of changing humidity.
Gum or resin: The bark exudes an amber-coloured, translucent gum similar to gum arabic used in mucilage and an ingredient in medicine.
Services:
Erosion control: It is good for erosion control and soil stabilization in arid lands, due to its deep rooting habit.
Shade or shelter: When planted as a hedgerow provides shade for fruit trees, field crops and to the homesteads.
Nitrogen fixing: P. chilensis is able to fix atmospheric nitrogen in its root nodules because is a legume.
Ornamental: Due to its broad, rounded, open head of bright green foliage supported by gracefully arched spineless branchlets, its rapid growth and large size, P. chilensis can be used as an ornamental tree.
Boundary or barrier or support: P. chilensis could possibly be used to an advantage as barrier plant to form stock-proof hedge row given its spines.
3. Pests and Diseases
Oncideres spp., a twig girdling insects causes minor damage to mathenge. Though not yet un-described, there is a disease which causes the terminal shoots to die. This necrosis gradually spreads downward and eventually kills the entire tree.
4. Information Source Links
Maundu P. and Bo Tengnas. (2005). Useful trees and shrubs for Kenya, World Agroforestry Centre. ISBN-9966-896-70-8. www.worldagroforestrycentre.org
The A. tortilis species is common in most parts of dry Africa from North and West Africa to South Africa. In Kenya, it is an indigenous tree. It’s widespread in the lowland arid and semiarid areas of the country.
Distribution of Acacia tortilis in Kenya (c) Maundu P. and Bo Tengnas. (2005). Useful trees and shrubs for Kenya, World Agroforestry Centre.
General Information about the Tree:
A. tortilis is indigenous in Angola, Botswana, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Iran, Israel, Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Zambia, Zimbabwe
Biophysical Limits:
It tolerates a wide range of soils ranging from sandy, silty to black-cotton soils. However, it may be dominant on dry red soils and prefers slightly alkaline conditions. It is often found along rivers, in the altitude ranging from 0 to 1,650m above sea level. Capable of growing in shallow soils, it is among the most drought-resistant of the acacias in Kenya; rainfall needs range between 150-900mm per annum. Does well in agro-ecological zones IV-VII.
2. Propagation and Tree Management
Mixed enrichment/ agroforestry Propagation is by seedlings, wildings, direct sowing at site (seeds taken straight from pod rarely germinate due to seed dormancy), It’s slow growing but may grow relatively fast on dry sandy soils if weeding is done and goats are kept away. Also withstands moderate lopping and does not coppice well. Prune when young.
Products:
Timber; It is even believed that Noah of the Old Testament made his ark from the wood of A. tortilis. Its wood is used for planking, boxes, poles, moisture proof plywood, gun and rifle parts, furniture, house construction and farm implements.
Medicine; dried powdered bark is used as a disinfectant in healing hounds.
Fodder; Pods and leaves are used as animal feed especially for goats and camels.
Poison: it is a strong molluscicide and algicide; its fruits are placed in fish ponds to kill the snail species that carry schistosomiasis, without affecting the fish.
Fibre: Strings are made from bark.
Food; The Maasai people eat immature seeds and in turkana pods are used to make porridge after extracting the seed.
Tannin and dye; the bark is a source of tannin
Fuel; It is a good source of firewood and high quality charcoal.
Pins and needles; Its thorns are used as pins or needles.
Edible products of umbrella thorn acacia (c) Bo Tengnas
Charcoal of umbrealla thorn acacia (c) Bo Tengnas
Services:
Erosion control: this tree grows faster and is drought resistant; this makes it more useful in soil conservation, afforesting shifting sand dunes, refractory sites, hill slopes, ravines and lateritic soils.
Shelter or shade; The Turkana people uses it as a meeting place and also provides shade for both people and animals in hot sun.
Ornamental
Nitrogen fixation; A. tortilis has nodules and hence fixes nitrogen in the soil.
Boundary, barrier or support; its thorny branches are suitable material for erecting barriers.
Shelter under the tree in hot sun (c) Bo Tengnas
3. Pests and Diseases
In some parts, powder pest beetles (Sinoxylon anale and S. crassum) are serious pests of A. tortilis timber. They can reduce felled timber into dust in a matter of weeks. To avoid these attacks, prophylactic treatment is recommended, with 1.5% lindane 20 EC water emulsion or 1.5% endosulfan 35 EC water emulsion.Other pests are; Callosobruchus chinensis and Caryedon gonogara (bruchid). It is also susceptible to attacks by other beetles, caterpillars and blight. The pod and seed insects can be controlled by treating specific branches with 0.25% endosulfan or fenitrothion water emulsions.Seeds stored in gunny bags can be dusted with 5% folithion for short-period treatment to prevent them from pest attacks. But if they going to be stored for a longer period, apply 10% BHC should be applied with a duster. You can also fumigate with carbon disulphide, aluminium phosphide or chlorosal to kill seed- and podboring bruchids. Pyrethrum mixed with seed in a seed-dressing drum can also act as an insect repellent.
4. Information Source Links
Maundu P. and Bo Tengnas. (2005)Useful trees and shrubs for Kenya, World Agroforestry Centre. ISBN-9966-896-70-8.
Orwa C, Mutua A , Kindt R , Jamnadass R, Simons A. 2009. Agroforestree Database:a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0
