Goat Health and Diseases

Credits: Biovision-Infonet

Health of goats

If animals are well fed, well watered and well managed disease is rarely an every day problem. Goats are generally tough and resilient. Problems come when a farmer begins to expect greater production from his animals by crossing them with exotic breeds. More intensive management is required the more an animal is expected to produce, and this management does not depend on sticking needles in animals. A good goat manager will know the requirements of his/her goats and take great care that their needs are well taken care of. A healthy goat has 

  • a smooth shiny coat 
  • bright eyes 
  • good appetite 
  • easy quick movements 
  • will rest and chew cud regularly 
  • will pass normal feaces and urine (color and consistency can change with change in feeds) 
  • normal body temperature of 40degC (+- 1degC) higher in the morning than in the evening. 
  • normal respiration rate of 12-15 breaths per minute (faster in kids).

Diagnosis of sick animals

The early awareness of sickness in animals is important to successful treatment. The longer an animal is sick the more difficult it will be to cure. Early signs of sickness: 

  • Stops eating and possibly also drinking 
  • Becomes dehydrated 
  • The temperature rises 
  • Respiration rate increases 
  • The animal becomes dull and lags behind the others 
  • The coat becomes rough and looses its shine 


Always observe a sick animal before rushing into conclusions. Take its temperature, look for outward signs such as coughing, wounds, diarrohea etc. 

Dehydration (lack of liquid in the body) can kill the animal, so the first thing is to provide the animal with shelter and plenty of clean drinking water. Then the sick animal needs energy to fight off the disease. A thin porridge made with any clean grain flour and boiled up with a bit of salt, sugar or honey and cooled is a good supplement to feed a sick goat. 

Depending on the size of the goat they can be given up to 4 bottles a day at regular intervals. Alternatively make a rehydration solution from 1 liter of boiled water, 4 tablespoons of honey or sugar and 1 teaspoon of salt and give as a drench. A sick goat will respond better to treatment in the company of another goat. In the case of constipation a very simple remedy is 1 egg / 250 gr sugar beaten well together and fed slowly to the goat with a syringe. If symptoms persist, consult your vet.

Feeding sick goats 


Feed goats well when ill. Good feeding will give strength. Small, weak, young and sick goats should be fed separately. Follow the best way to feed goats carefully and handle them gently. Diseases and parasites are one of the main constraints to goat production in Africa. In addition, diseases and parasites reduce the condition of goats, severely affecting overall production. Disease, parasites, low nutrition, poor management, lack of sanitation and hygiene affect the health and performance of goats. Poor feeding and management reduce the resistance to attack by disease and parasites.

Goat diseases

Listed below is a brief account of the more important aspects of goat diseases. Farmers should seek veterinary assistance whenever in doubt about appropriate prevention and control.

1. PPR (Peste des Pestes Ruminants)

Also known as goat plague or rinderpest. This is a serious viral infection. The clinical symptoms and PM results resemble those in cattle with rindepest. The infection has a 4-5 day incubation which is followed by pyrexia (high fever) lasting 6 – 8 days. The spread of the infection is primarily respiratory, through nasal execution. Mortality is high within a week and the disease can be followed by secondary pneumonia. Kids are much more affected than adults.
Symptoms:

  • High fever
  • Oral necrosis
  • Catarrh
  • Nasal discharge 
  • Diarrhoea

Prevention:

  • Annual inoculation
  • Slaughter of infected and exposed animals
  • Restriction of animal movement to control spread

Treatment/Control: No effective treatment. 

2. Contagious Caprine Pleuro- Pneumonia (CCPP)


Contagious caprine pleuro-pneumonia, or CCPP, is a highly contagious respiratory disease. Infected goats infected become very sick and often die. The disease is caused by two different Mycoplasma bacteria (Mycoplasma capricolum capripneumoniae – also known as Mycoplasma F-38 and Mycoplasma mycoides var. capri). Transmission is by droplet infection from nasal discharge, especially if goats are confined. The mortality rate can be 100%.

Prevention:

  • Quarantining for several weeks any animals coming new to the farm before introducing them into the herd, especially if the goats came from countries known to have the disease.
  • Thorough cleaning and disinfection of the premise
  • Slaughter of infected and exposed animals
  • Restriction of animal movement to control spread

Treatment/Control:

  • Contact your veterinary immediately 
  • Antibiotics such as Tylosin and Baytil can be used. 
  • Vaccination is the best control.

3. Pneumonic pastuerellosis (PP)

Caused by two Pasteuerella micro organisms (p haemolytica and p. Multocida type 11). It is spread by droplet infection and outbreaks are usually sporadic. The clinical symptoms are similar to those in CCPP. The disease seems to be triggered by stress and as a result is often referred to as ‘shipping fever’ as the disease often manifests itself after transportation.


Treatment/Control:

  • Yearly vaccination
  • Elimination of stress factors in the management and handling of animals
  • Antibiotics such as Tylosin and Baytil can be used

4. Haemorragic Septicaemia

A particular strain of pasteurella multocida. Type 1 is the case of Haemorragic Septicaemia. Animals under stress are particularly susceptile. It is spread by carrier animals by droplet infection. Virulence increases after rapid passge through a number of animals.

Treatment/Control: 

  • Antibiotics such as Tylosin and Baytil can be used. 
  • There are several vaccines on the market which can provde up to 2 years immunity. Vaccine should be administered 2 months before stress (i.e., transport) or just prior to the rainy season in humid areas.


5. Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD)

FMD affects all cloven hoofed animals and is prevalent throughout East Africa. The disease is transmitted by direct contact or by material contaminated with discharge lesions. Incubation 3 – 8 days. 

Symptoms: 

  • Salivation and foaming at the mouth.
  • Formation of vesicles (blisters) in the mouth, feet and liver. 
  • The feet are painful thus movement is restricted. For the same reason the animal finds grazing and eating difficult.

Treatment/Control:

  • Since the disease is spread by contact with infected animals, every precaution should be taken to minimise contact. Movement should be prohibited and foot baths should be used on infected farms. 
  • Vaccination is highly recommended at the onset of an outbreak. However, the vaccine is not always readily available.

6. Orf 

A viral infection spread by droplets and saliva. Symptoms similar to FMD but not as serious. Lesions on mouth and nose. In severe infections lesions can spread to genitals. Infection in well fed animals usually disappears after 3-4 weeks. Mortality rate: low but growth and productivity affected due to painful feeding.

Treatment/ Control: 

  • No effective cure known.
  • Vaccinate at first signs of outbreak

7. Coccidiosis

The disease occurs primarily in intensive units where adults and kids are housed together. The disease seldom occurs under extensive and good management. 

Symptoms :

  • Foul smelling diarrhoea (with no blood). 
  • Temperature rises and there is no interest in food.

Prevention/Control:

  • Administrate Sulphamezathine for 5 days. 
  • Isolate infected animals 
  • Effective sanitary measures are essential. Infected stalls and feed pans should be thoroughly disinfected and rested for 24 hours before reuse.

8. Anthrax (Miltsiekte)

The disease is caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis (similar to botulism).  Acute death without any symptoms. NEVER OPEN THE CARCASS. This will spread the disease which is HIGHLY CONTAGIOUS, even to humans. Disease is spread by water and food contamination with blood and excretions or by wound infection (puncture wounds by thorns). Incubation period 1-3 days.  

Symptoms: 

  • High fever, shivering and trembling, sometimes diarrhoea. Sudden death
  • Rapid bloat and decomposing of the carcass.
  • Rigor mortis DOES NOT occur. After death, blood appears at the natural openings (nose, anus etc., ) 

Treatment/ Control:

  • No treatment as disease is noticed too late. 
  • The best prevention is annual vaccination if there are known cases in the area during the previous 5 years. 
  • Do not let animals graze near the infected area. 
  • NOTIFY THE VETERINARY DEPARTMENT IMMEDIATELY. This is a notifiable disease.

9. Clostridial diseases

Tetanus (Lock jaw)

The caused by a neurotoxim produced by the Clostridium tetani bacterium. Spores enter the body through wounds (i;e., following castration, ear tagging, thorns and puncture wounds etc., ) The toxin affects the central nervous system producing symptoms including: erect ears, elevated tail, extended neck, standing with forelegs and hind legs extended. The animal cannot eat or drink, is sensitive to any light touch, sharp noise or bright light. Animal may lie down on its side with stiff limbs stretched out and off the ground. Mortality is high and, even if an animal recovers, their productive life will be severely impaired. Recovery is very much dependent on the standard of care of the sick animal.

Prevention/Control:

  • Keep the animal in a dark and quiet place. 
  • Treat the animal with penicillin.
  • Animals should be vaccinated before kidding, then annually. 
  • Infection is always caused by hygiene (i.e, puncture wounds, castration etc.).  Disinfect any and all wounds. Castration with elastic bands should be used with caution.
  • Infected carcasses should be handled with care and incinerated.

Black Quarter

Caused by the Clostridium chauvoei bacteria. Symptoms include fever, loss of appetite, stiffness and swelling of affected area. Initially the swelling is hot and painful, but soon becomes cold and painless. Overlying skin becomes dark. Treatment should commence as soon as symptoms commence. Mortality is high and occurs within 24-36 hours. 
 

Treatment/Control:

  • Treat with penicillin or oxytetracycline (usually unsuccessful).
  • Disease is almost always the result of infection of a wound caused by management practices (castrating etc., and environmental causes (thorn punctures). 
  • Vaccination annually (vaccine may not be readily available). 
  • Hygiene is very important.
  • Carcasses should be handled with care and incinerated.

Enterotoxaemia (Pulpy Kidney Disease)

Caused by Clostridum welchi. An acute, often fatal disease, affecting goats of all ages (often those that appear fittest succumb). It is an epsiton toxin produced by bacterium clostridium perfringens type D. The onset is usually very rapid. Animals may be normal in the morning but dead by nightfall. Whilst the clostridium bacteria is present in the intestine of all goats, given favourable conditions (i.e., high levels of grain or carbohydrates) it can grow rapidly, resulting in toxicity (the disease is sometimes referred to as ‘carbohydrate engorgement’).
The main danger is the first few days after a change in diet (i.e., poor to rich pasture or the sudden addition of high carbohydrate food such as green maize husks.. PM will indicate a rumen packed with undigested carbohydrates and fluid throughout the gastric system. After death fluid may be seen to pour from the nose and mouth. The disease is nearly always fatal and symptoms are almost impossible to reverse.  

Prevention / Control: 

  • Vaccination annually

Botulism (Lamsiekte/gallamsiekte)

Caused by clostridium botulinim bacteria;. These bacteria form spores which occur in the soil and can lie dormant for many years. Make sure animals do not suffer from mineral deficiency or show signs of pica (animals start eating soil or bones, as these can harbour the spores). Infection in well fed animals usually disappears after 3-4 weeks.

Symptoms:

  • Lesions on mouth and nose. In severe infections lesions can spread to genitals. 
  • Stiffness of the limbs noticed in leg and neck muscles followed by partial or complete paralysis of all muscles. 
  • Tongue may protrude. In less acute cases animals have difficulty feeding and drinking.

Prevention: 

  • Annual Vaccination is the best prevention (especially if animals are fed with chicken litter).

Treatment/control:

  • No treatment. 
  • Carcasses should be handled carefully and incinerated

Brucellosis

Brucellosis is not common in goats. It is a particularly dangerous infection as it can be transmitted to humans through milk. Brucellosis is caused by one or ore variants of Brucella bacteria of which B. melitensis is particularly important. Contagious abortion may result. The infection remains and the aborted does will not breed.  

Prevention/ Control: 

  • Vaccination of male goats at weaning is recommended. 
  • Males should be tested for diseases before introduction into herd. DO NOT vaccinate female goats if they are pregnant as this may cause abortion. It renders bucks sterile
  • Remove infected animals from the herd. 

Caseous lymphadenitis (Cheesy gland disease/pseudotuberculosis/absesse)

The cause is Corynebacterium ovis bacteria. The symptoms include development of one of more abscesses in the lymphatic glands.  
Prevention:

  • Animal vaccination (not readily available in East Africa) 
  • Good herd hygiene.

Treatment / Control:

  • Open mature abscess with a clean scalpel or knife on a soft spot. Squeeze the puss out of the abscess and collect it in a tin or plastic bag (DO NOT leave it lying around. Burn it or discard it where animals and humans cannot come into contact with it.). Flush the empty abscess with hydrogen peroxide, followed by a flush with a solution of salt water. Fill the empty abscess with Iodine or Betadine and spray with a disinfectant spray (gentian violet is excellent)
  • No other adequate control treatment. 

Mastitis

Both acute and chronic forms may be encountered. The disease is caused by different types of pathogenic bacteria but Staphylococcus and streptococcus agaiactiae are common. Generally caused by bad hygiene and poor management at milking time. Infected does have swollen, hot udders (sometime only part of the udder is affected). It is extremely painful and, if left untreated, further serious complications may follow and milk production will be impaired. Severe cases can be fatal if left unattended.
 

Prevention/Control:

  • Absolute cleanliness at milking is essential. 
  • Infected does, after stripping the milk, can be given infusions of streptomycin or terramycin creams through the teat (not as effective) .

Hypocalcaemia (Milk Fever) 

All milk goats suffer a fall in levels of blood calcium and phosphorous at the start of milking. In some instances the fall of blood calcium is so great that milk fever is the result. It is commonest in young does and high yielding first kidders, but it can occur in late pregnancy, during kidding and at any stage of lactation especially in high yielders. Milk Fever may occur soon after kidding. Symptoms include loss of appetite followed by restlessness, excitement and trembling. Inco-ordination will be followed by coma.

Treatment: 

  • Seek veterinary assistance immediately
  • Affected does need 80 – 100 ml calcium boroglucomate with magnesium and phosphorous injected subcutaneously. 

Transit Tetany

Can occur in milkers, dry does and male goats. It is caused by a combined deficiency in calcium and magnesium caused by stress i.,e fear and transport.  


Signs and treatment: as in milk fever.

28th Jan 2020

Credit:FAO Desert Locust watch

Locusts will increase further as a new generation of breeding starts in the Horn of Africa

The current Desert Locust situation remains extremely alarming and represents an unprecedented threat to food security and livelihoods in the Horn of Africa. This will be further exacerbated by new breeding that has commenced, which will cause more locust infestations. 

Kenya. Immature swarms continue to arrive in the northeast and move throughout northern and central areas, having invaded 13 counties to date. Some swarms have started to lay eggs that will hatch in early February and new swarms could start to form by early April in northern counties. Although a few swarms have reached the Rift Valley, they are likely to remain in northern areas. Aerial and ground control operations are in progress but need upscaling. Further movements are expected in Turkana and central counties.

Ethiopia. Swarms continue to be present throughout eastern areas, including the Ogaden, while some continue to move to the south and into the Rift Valley. Another generation of breeding will increase locust numbers further. Aerial and ground control operations are in progress but need upscaling.  

Somalia. In the northeast, hopper bands are present and swarms are laying eggs where hatching and further hopper band formation are imminent. Other swarms have been reported in the south near the Kenya border.

South Sudan and Uganda. As the nearest swarms are about 200 km away in Kenya, a few of these could appear at any time in the coming days in the extreme southeast of South Sudan and, to a lesser extent, in northeast Uganda.

In addition to the Horn of Africa, there are several other hot spots where important Desert Locust infestations are developing.

Djibouti. A few swarms were reported near Ali Sabieh and the Ethiopian border. More details are awaited.

Eritrea. Ground control operations are underway against hopper groups that are fledging and forming adult groups on the northern and central coast. At least one swarm arrived on the southern coast near Assab on the 20th either from Yemen or Etiopia. 

Sudan. Locust infestations are increasing on the Red Sea coast where hopper bands have formed and mature swarms are laying eggs. Aerial and ground control operations are in progress.

Oman. Ground control operations continue against hopper bands and several swarms in the northeast. A few small swarms migrated southwards along the eastern coast, reaching Salalah.

Saudi Arabia and Yemen. Hopper bands have formed along Red Sea coastal plains from Jeddah to Hodeidah, many of which have fledged and formed immature groups of adults that are maturing. Immature swarms formed in Yemen on the coast and some moved into the highlands. Another generation of breeding will cause locust numbers to increase further. Aerial and ground control operations are in progress in Saudi Arabia while limited ground control has been carried out in Yemen.

Iran. Swarm breeding is thought to be underway along parts of the southern coast.

India/Pakistan. Control operations continue against residual summer-bred swarms along both sides of the border.

Types of Bees

Credit:Biovision:Infonet

Honey Bees in Kenya

There are many different species of bees in the world most of them solitary (living alone). A few species of bees are kept for pollination and honey production. In Kenya the most important species is called the honeybee or Apis mellifera. This is the species of bee that is familiar to everyone. It is this species of bee that this book is about. Within this species there are a number of races of bees in Kenya which have their own particular characteristics. We have Apis mellifera scutellata, Apis mellifera monticola, Apis mellifera yeminitica (nubica) and Apis mellifera littorea.

Apis mellifera yemenitica (formally A. m. nubica) 
This is the smallest race in Africa. It has the most slender abdomen and the largest yellow abdominal colour band of all African races. It commonly withstands and survives drought conditions by frequent migration. It is mostly found in the northern parts of Kenya.

Apis mellifera scutellata 

Adult Apis mellifera scutellata
(c) Jeffrey W. Lotz, www.insectimages.com

Apis mellifera littorea 
This bee inhabits the low lands of the Kenya Coast. It does not migrate as much as scutellata. It has a tendency to rear brood throughout the year due to availability of forage along the coast.


Apis mellifers monticola 
This bee is called the mountain bee and is found at high altitudes in Tanzania and Kenya – 1,500 – 3,100 meters. The bee inhabits places where the sun is frequently obscured by clouds and mist and ground frosts can occur at night. It is the largest bee in Africa. It has a tendency to reduce brood rearing at the first sign of forage decline and may not migrate. It is less productive and less vicious. It is found in Meru and Mt. Elgon. (Source National Beekeeping Station, Nairobi).

Honeybees from other countries in Africa

Apis mellifera intermissa 
This is a North African race of honeybee found north of the Sahara from Libya to Morocco. The bee is reputedly very aggressive and swarms frequently. During droughts over 80% of colonies may die but owing to intensive swarming colony numbers increase when conditions improve.

Apis mellifera lamarckii 
Egyptian bees found in North East Africa primarily in Egypt and the Sudan along the Nile Valley. Like intermissa they rear numerous queens with one colony recorded as rearing 368 queen cells and producing one small swarm with 30 queens!

Apis mellifera adansonii 
These bees are found in West Africa and are yellow in colour. They appear to be very similar to scutellata in many of their behaviours.

Apis mellifera capensis 
These bees are found in South Africa and are unique among Apis mellifera in that they have a common occurance of female-producing laying workers.Some of these races are highly aggressive if the nest is disturbed, but stay calm if there is no brood or stored honey to protect. The African bees are also more likely to abscond (abandon) their hives on slight disturbances, and in some areas the colonies migrate seasonally.

Stingless Honeybees

There are also species of stingless bees in Kenya. These bees also produce honey which is prized as a medicine. Stingless bees can be kept in small hives but are not kept commercially in Kenya at the moment. However there has been renewed interest in these bees recently with the discovery of new species in Kakamega by a scientist working for the National Museums of Kenya. 

Note: This article on African races of bees and their behaviour will be developed over time to include more detailed information on specific African bee races. An understanding of the type of bees we have in Africa and their behaviour is fundamental to good beekeeping. 

Hive Predators and pests

Credits:Biovision-Infonet

During the last two decades there has been a tremendous increase in the spread of bee diseases around the world. This has been brought about by the movement of honey bee colonies and sharing of beekeeping equipment. There are few remaining regions without introduced honey bee diseases, and as a rule used beekeeping equipment should not be imported.

Honey bee colonies, or even single queen bees, must never be moved from one area to another without expert consideration of the consequences. See the section in the introduction about bee-keeping and organic agriculture.

There are numerous pests that will disrupt a beehive and prey on your bees. Wax moths are almost universal, ants are very common and persistent hazard, and honey badgers a serious nuisance in Africa. It is best to talk to other local beekeepers about what the most common problems are and take their advice about appropriate defences. The major bee pests and predators that affect the performance and production of honey bee colonies are:

PestControl
Termites, ants  -Greasing suspension wires
-Clearing the vegetation beneath and around the hives
Hive beetles  – Use the right size of entrance holes.
– Maintain a strong colony
– Inspection and physical removal
Wax moth     -Strengthen colonies by feeding and destroying infested combs.
Sugar ants    – Greasing of suspension wires
– Cleaning the apiary
Predators
Pirate wasp-Strong colonies
Honey badger-Wasp trap
 -High hive hanging method

Bee Colony

Credit:Biovision-Infonet

The bee colony is a fascinating organism of living insects, up to 50-60’000 individual bees. There are 3 different kinds of bees in every colony: a queen, drones (male bees) and workers. 

Honeybee castes in a colony. Illustration.
(c) icipe / Biovision

Queen

The queen has a long and slender abdomen, with wings covering about 1/4 of the entire abdomen and 2 large ovaries and the spermatheca (sac-like structure for sperm storage) housed in the abdomen.
Her function is to;

– Mate

– Lay eggs for the rest of her life, in peak times up to 2000 per day in her 1-4 year long life. This is more than the weight of the queen. The larvae hatching from these eggs develop into workers, queens or drones depending on specific conditions.

– To produce chemical substances called pheromones that keep the colony cohesive.

Queen bee
(c) Biovision/icipe

Drones

Drone
(c) icipe / Biovision

Drones are the male honeybees and develop from unfertilised eggs. They are larger than workers with large eyes which cover practically the whole head and have a blunt abdomen covered with a tuft of small hairs. Drones fly with a loud buzzing sound and are larger than other bees, and this together make them very scary, however, they lack the sting. They do not collect pollen or nectar, and are unable to produce wax. Drones lack work related structures and their sole function is to fertilise the queens. They are fed by worker bees.
In times when resources are scarce in the bee hive, drones are chased from the hive. They will usually die off as they cannot feed themselves. Drones normally have a life span of 60 days, and they die minutes after mating the queen as they loose “vital parts” of the abdomen in the process. 

Workers

Worker bee
(c) icipe / Biovision
 
 

Workers are the smallest in size and majority in the colony and develop from fertilized eggs. Here, the feeding of the larvae with royal jelly, a glandular secretion of the workers, is the decisive factor. Fertilised larvae up to three days old can be changed to queens by feeding royal jelly to them. If they are not fed with royal jelly, the larvae will become worker bees. Workers cannot mate or store semen. However in abnormal colony conditions they can lay unfertilised eggs which develop into drones (male bees). Laying workers is a sign that a colony has become queenless for a long period of time.

The worker bees make up about 95% of the colony and they do almost all the work: Older workers bring in nectar, pollen, water, and propolis (bee glue) to the hive. Their hind legs are specially equipped for this task with the so called pollen baskets. The oldest bees guard the hive entrance. Their sting is a powerful weapon. If used against a human the bee usually looses the sting and dies. This will not happen when stinging another bee. Younger bees tend to perform duties inside the hive. Very important is the feeding and cleaning of the queen. Other duties are: cleaning the hive, building wax combs, feeding the young and or controlling the temperature of the brood area. For this duty workers eat honey to produce heat in cold weather. Bringing water inside the hive and fanning with their wings will keep the hive cool in hot weather.  

Beekeeping Equipment

Credits:Biovision-Infonet

Smoker

Local smoker
(c) S. Fontana, Biovision
Imported smoker (from the USA)
(c) S. Fontana, Biovision

Most of the equipment needed for small-scale bee-keeping can be made at village level. It can be helpful to import basic equipment to serve as prototypes for local manufacturers. For practicing on a large scale, some specialized equipment will probably need to be bought such as honey gates, special filtering gauze, and gauges to determine honey quality.

A beekeeper uses a smoker to produce cool smoke to calm the bees. The smoker consists of a fuel box containing smoldering fuel (for example dried cow dung, cardboard, dried bark or grass) with a bellows attached. The bee keeper puffs a little smoke near the entrance of the hive before it is opened, and gently smokes the bees to move them from one part of the hive to another.

Bee brush 

Bee brush
(c) S. Fontana, Biovision

The bee brush is for brushing bees from combs when harvesting honey or when it is necessary to gently remove bees. Using a feather is also a good alternative.

Hive tools 

Hive tool
(c) S. Fontana, Biovision

The hive tool is a handy piece of metal which is used to pry open supers, scrape off odd bits of bees wax, separate frame-ends from their supports and so on. They can be made from pieces of flat steel, and screwdrivers are often used. It is possible to use an old knife for the job but knife blades tend to be too flexible and give too little leverage.

Protective clothing 

Protective clothing for beekeepers
(c) P. Luethi, Biovision

Good protective clothing gives beginner beekeepers confidence, but more experienced beekeepers find that too much protective clothing makes it difficult to work sufficiently gently with bees, and it is very hot to wear. Always wear white or light coloured clothing when working with bees – they are much more likely to sting dark coloured clothing. It is most important to protect the face, especially the eyes and mouth. A broad rimmed hat with some veiling will be good enough. Individual items of clothing must be impermeable to bee stings, and every joint between them must be bee tight. Rubber bands can prevent bees from crawling up trouser legs or shirt sleeves. Some people find that a good way to protect their hands is to put a plastic bag over each hand, secured at the wrist with a rubber band.

Bee Hives

Credits:Biovision-Infonet

A hive is the box or some other container where bees live. In Kenya there are three types of hives:

  • Traditional Hives
  • Kenya Top Bar Hives (KTBH)
  • Frame hives

Traditional Hives (Log Hives)

Log hive from Tana River, Kenya
(c) A. Bruntse, Biovision

Log hives and other traditional hives contribute to about 80% of Kenya’s honey production. They are estimated to number almost 1.5 million countrywide, and provide a livelihood to many especially in arid and semi-arid lands. Log hives are cheap but difficult to harvest. 
Traditional hives are largely considered as no more than man-made cavities in which bees live. They come in all forms as hollowed-out logs, discarded metal cans or drums, clay pots, wooden boxes, baskets of straw, bamboo and many others. Honeybees attach combs directly on the upper surfaces of the hive and usually to the sides.

Advantages 
– Materials for construction are readily available and are cheap in most cases free
– Beeswax and propolis production is relatively high
– Traditional hives and methods of working with them are established

Disadvantages 
– It is impossible to remove or replace combs. This makes examination and harvesting difficult.
– Swarming is often common due to limited space.
– Brood is often lost during harvesting.
– Honey production is limited.
– Honey quality is usually low (mixed with pollen, brood and ashes).
– Many adult bees are usually killed during harvesting. This must absolutely be regarded as critical in organic agriculture, as it is very unfair to the bees.
– There is usually a lot of colony disturbance during harvesting which in most cases causes absconding. This is – like above – very unfair to the bees, and therefore not recommendable in an organic farm.

Kenya Top Bar Hives (KTBH)

Kenya top bar hive
(c) P. Luethi, Biovision
Kenya Top Bar Hive (KTBH) with suspension wires
(c) Apiconsult

Usually the bees attach their combs to the bars but not to the side of the hive, since the walls are slanted at an angle of at least 14deg. This allows lifting out of the combs for examination. The bees attach their combs to the bars which can be lifted out of the hive for examination. 

In Kenya, the Kenya Top Bar hive was designed and adopted in 1971. Other hives, such the modified African Long Hive and the Langstroth Hive, have since been introduced. However, the Kenya Top Bar Hive remains the most dominant and most widely used due to its simplicity, affordable price and advantages.

Advantages 
– Only one critical dimension in construction i.e the top bars. Other measurements are not too critical, thus hives can be made with simple tools from relatively cheap local materials, including concrete.
– Every comb is accessible without removing the others. This causes less disturbance to the colony and greatly reduces the number of bees flying around when the hive is open.
– The brood can be inspected easily, which gives the beekeeper real control over the management of the hive.
– The beekeeper can judge the exact time when combs are ready for honey harvesting without disturbing the brood. 
– The honey is of higher quality as the combs can be selected to be free of pollen and brood. 
– The top-bar hive makes it possible to gather good quality beeswax for which there is always a ready market.
– The better management techniques promoted by these hives help preserve and increase the bee population and leads to increased pollination and production of honey and wax. 

Major disadvantage 
– Combs are cut during harvesting, and bees have to make new combs after each harvest. This leaves the bee-keeper with considerations of making a ‘fair share’ with the bees, and harvest at time of flowering, which still allow the bees to build up combs and honey to times with more scarcity in the surroundings in terms of honey and nectar.

The Kenya Top Bar Hive (KTBH) was developed in Kenya and is now used around the world
(c) Thomas Carroll, Kenya (2006)
Notice one comb per top bar, which allows modern bee management by the ability to move combs without breaking them
   (c) Thomas Carroll, Kenya (2006)

Frame Hives (FH): Example, Langstroth Hives

Langstroth hives
(c) P. Luethi, Biovision
Langstroth hive with frame
(c) AIRC, Kenya
The Langstroth hive: inspecting frames
(c) Thomas Carroll, Kenya (2006)

This hive is named after its inventor L.L. Langstroth. The hive consists of precision-made rectangular boxes which fit one on top of the other. It has at least two boxes (supers) with the lower chamber called the brood chamber. 
Between the brood chamber and the super sometimes a queen excluder is placed. It limits egg laying activity of the queen to the brood chamber only. The wooden frames are “wired” and complemented with a sheet of wax foundation. Each box contains a set of framed combs. During harvesting the frames are removed and put into a extracting machine, which removes the honey leaving the combs intact. The combs are then returned into the hive for reuse by the bees. 

Other standard hives exist, besides the Langstroth hives, for example the Dadant hive. 

The race of the kept bees, financial means as well as available woodworking equipment are all more important than the dimension of the hive box. However, bee space is critical. Bees require this space between the sides of each frame and the walls of the hive. The bees space for most African Apis mellifera is 6 mm (1/4inch). Without attention to the proper bee space, beekeeping will be difficult, because the bees will be building burr combs. 

Advantages 
– The wax comb is fixed within a frame facilitating and maximizing harvesting and the added strength means less chance of damage to combs during removal from the hive and extraction.of honey. – The strength of the frame/comb allows the hive to be transported even on rough roads, and so the beekeepers can cash in on the pollination market or move bees to another area when forage is short. In organic agriculture, moving of bees over distances should be kept at a minimum, due to reasons given in the section above about organic agriculture and bee keeping.

– The whole honey supers can be harvested without disturbance of the brood box below. – Standardization of parts makes for much easier large-scale and commercial operation.

– Honey can be extracted by means of a centrifugal extractor and empty combs returned to the hive where they will be reused and refilled. This maximizes the honey harvest. 

Disadvantages 
– There are few local craftsmen who have the skill, equipment and precision to consistently make parts that fit exactly and are compatible with each other time after time.
– The need to keep a supply of spare frames and supers for use at appropriate times is an expensive investment.
– In order to capitalise on the frames, a centrifugal extractor is essential. This is difficult to make and has to be purchased from a commercial supplier. 

Producing and Harvesting Combs

Credit:Biovision-Infonet

A honey bee nest consists of a series of parallel beeswax combs. Each comb consists of hexagonal cells, which function as containers for honey, pollen or developing bee larvae (brood). If enough nectar is available young worker bees will produce the needed wax with 8 glands situated on the abdomen (belly). The combs are evenly spaced and are attached to the ceiling and the walls of the nest. The space between the faces of the combs is known as ‘bee space’. In natural nests it is usually 6-8 mm. This is critical and gives the bees enough space to walk and work on the surfaces of the combs. Depending on the type of the honey bee, the bee space, the dimensions of the individual cells as well as the size of the nest will vary. The bee space is a crucial factor in the use of bee equipment and honey bees cannot be managed efficiently using equipment of inappropriate size.

Harvesting Combs

Harvesting of the honey should be carried out in the evenings or early mornings. Gentleness is the key to successful colony manipulation, so learn to carry out this process swiftly but calmly to avoid upsetting your bees.

  • Put on your full protective clothing
  • Get your smoker, brush or quill, knife or hive tool and a rust-proof container in which to put the honey combs
  • Load your smoker, and puff some smoke gently around the hive for a few minutes. Wait a few more minutes, then puff smoke around the entry holes.
  • After puffing the smoke open the lid
  • Use the knife or hive tool to remove the first bar from the end of the hive
  • Puff smoke gently into the gap to drive the bees to the other side of the hive.
  • Start removing the bars one by one, until you get the first comb which will be white and new. It may be empty or it may contain some unripened honey. Replace it and leave the comb for the bees to develop.
  • Remove only the capped or partly capped combs, which will be quite heavy. Use a brush or feather to sweep any bees back into the hive.
  • Cut off the comb, leaving about 2 cm for the bees to start building up again. Put the comb in your container and replace the top bar.
  • Carry on harvesting until you come across a brood comb which will be dark in colour and contain pollen too. Leave this honey for the bees.
  • Start the process at the other end of the hive.
  • Close the hive carefully, replacing the lid


After harvesting 


Feed the bees if necessary with sugar syrup of a good quality to: 

  • build/strengthen new colonies.
  • sustain starving colonies during drought.
  • stimulate brood rearing before honey flow.


If bees have absconded: 

  • Harvest all the combs to reclaim the wax.
  • Clean dirt and debris out of the hives.
  • Re-wax the top bars and replace them inside the clean hive.

Hives Inspection

Credit:Biovision-Infonet

Hive inspection should be done at least once a month in order to get acquainted with your bees. This will enable you to know:

  • When the colony needs a new queen
  • The colonies with docile bees
  • Productive colonies
  • Colonies with less tendency of swarming
  • Performance of the queen
  • Presence of pests, predators and diseases
  • Whether the honeybee colonies need supplementary feeding
  • When to make a division to form a new colony
  • When to harvest the honey

This is normally done through keeping a work-plan 

Hive inspection
(c) Mette Vaarst, Biovision

Step 6: Inspect inside the hives to see if: 

  • The bees are building combs correctly (one comb on one top bar);
  • The queen is laying enough eggs;
  • The brood nest has a closed brood area without too many empty cells in between
  • There are any leakages of water;
  • There are intruders like ants, beetles or spiders;
  • There are diseases harming the bees.