Calf Rearing and Feeding

Credits: Biovision-Infonet

A successful livestock owner knows that it really pays to take very good care of the young stock. The bull calves can be sold and the heifer calves are the future cows and production animals. Any losses means future income will be reduced. Newly born calves must be fed colostrum within few hours after birth to boost their immunity. Colostrum (the first milk the dam produces after calving) is a very concentrated food and disease prevention medicine for young calves and they must have as much as possible. It is recommended that they are fed with this within 2 hours of being born. Without colostrum a calf will be malnourished, grow poorly and prone to diseases throughout its life. Mostly such calves do not survive long. After the first 24 hours the stomach of the calf closes for the antibodies contained in the colostrum and only takes up the nutrients. The colostrum gradually becomes thinner and more like normal milk until after about a week it can be mixed with other milk.It is important to keep a good hygiene, and small calves are sensitive and can easily become diseased:

  • Where buckets are used for feeding, clean them thoroughly before feeding calves to avoid infections.
  • Milk should be fed at body temperature (37oC) i.e. immediately after milking.
  • At 2-3 weeks of age a calf should be fed 5 Lts of milk /day.
  • At 4-7 weeks feed 6 Lts/day (late weaning) or 4 Lts/day plus o.25-0.75 Kg/day of early weaning pellets (early weaning)
  • If a farmer has to feed milk replacers then it is absolutely necessary to follow manufacturers’ instructions for reconstitution. There is organic milk replacer on the market, but it is expensive. 
  • Calves should be provided with good quality hay and fresh forage by the 3rd week to enable the calf to start developing its rumen. Calves should be left to graze where good pastures are available. The calves should have access to unlimited supply of water and minerals. Calves should be sheltered in a clean and dry environment

Calf weaning 

Weaning is done to enable the dam to return on heat and is recommended at between 3-4 months of age or depending on the weather conditions. Calves should be weaned when there is adequate pasture and is done by separating calves from the dams. One method to reduce stress at weaning is to separate the cows and calves in a way that allows them to still see, smell and touch each other.

  • Calves are weaned at 12 weeks of age for early weaning or at 16 weeks for late weaning
  • To wean, you provide adequate amount of solid feed e.g. concentrates, hay and green forages. To be weaned the calf should have increased its girth (LWt= Liveweight) by 2 1/2 times the birth weight e.g. if a calf was born at 35 kg LWt. then it should be weaned at about 90kg LWt 
  • Weaning method is by reducing liquid diet gradually over a period of 10 days. Towards the end of the weaning period the calf may be given only one liquid meal per day
  • For beef breeds calves are left with their dams as long as practically possible. This gives the highest growth rate. In organic farming calves are weaned as late as possible (10-11 months). 

Other Calf Management Practices

Disbudding

Disbudding is not recommended in organic farming unless the breed is very aggressive and prone to fighting. If it is necessary, disbudding is done 2 to 3 months of age or as soon as the horn tip can be clearly felt. Use proper equipment. A local anesthetic such as Lidocaine must be used to prevent suffering. Use disbudding iron or caustic stick. To disbud, we heat the iron until red hot. Clip off the hair around horn area. Place the heated iron end over the bud at intervals of 5 to 10 seconds, each time firmly but not hard pressure. We stop heating when the colour of the bottom of the bud turns deep cooper and finally apply disinfectant. Do not use acid pastes.

Removal of extra teats

Extra teats are particularly in the way in case of machine milking. When hand milking, it can be annoying if the milk starts leaching from the extra teats every time you milk. Some practice to cut the extra teats off at an age of 2 to 3 weeks of age. This can be done by cutting the extra teat carefully with a sharp pair of scissors and disinfect the wound with iodine. 

Castration 

Castration is done to reduce inbreeding and to achieve well-distributed fat in beef animals. It is the easiest to do it during the first week by applying castration rubber bands to males not meant for breeding; it is not painless, but a method recommended in organic production systems.

Calf marking 

All calves should be marked after birth particularly when they are many. This is very necessary for identification and record keeping. Ear tagging, tatooing and branding can be used.

De-worming 

De-worming in calves must be done if there are signs of parasite attack. In organic herds, it is not permitted to use medicine for prevention of diseases but parasite infections should be prevented through good management practices, such as clean grazing areas and making sure that the young calves are also fed other feed and can have access to milk as long as possible, so that they do not rely heavily on grazing, and by not mixing calves of different age groups in the same flock. Treatment should depend on worm counts, as recommended by the local veterinarian, and the general state of health of the animal.

Disease control 

Dipping or spraying using recommended acaricides does control of ticks and external parasites. This is done to avoid transmission of diseases to the animals. Spraying and dipping should be done weekly or biweekly depending on the tick/insect pressure. In many cases, endemic stability can be kept by removing ticks by hand. Sometimes it is beneficial in high tick infestation areas to let the animals have a few ticks in order to develop resistance to many of the tick borne diseases. Please consult your veterinarian.

Common calf management challenges

  • Calf scours Causes: Poor nutrition and feeding e.g. dirty milk, dirty buckets, overfeeding etc. Signs: Calf scours (whitish diarrhoea), soiled tail, loss of appetite, high temperatures and dehydration.Control: Reduce or completely withdraw milk for two to three meals. If the above does not work withdraw milk 2-3 meals and then replace it with warm water mixed with 1/2 tablespoon of baking powder plus two tablespoons of common salt and 110 g of glucose (mixed in 4.5 litres warm water). If disease is persistent consult veterinarian. If no veterinarian is available there may be sulphamidine tablets available from the nearest chemist designed for scouring calves. Use only as directed.
  • Calf Pneumonia Causes: The disease occurs if the calf is exposed to sudden chilly conditions (draughty quarters) or poor ventilation.Signs: Watery discharge from nose and eyes, shallow and rapid breathing, coughing, loss of appetite and high temperatures. Control: House all calves at least for the first 6 weeks; Avoid draughts; Treatment with suitable drugs. If disease is persistent consult veterinarian.

Calving

Credits: Biovision-Infonet

Blackie and her calf Bati Credit: Su Kahumbu

Calving Preparation

Dry the cow 2 months before expected calving. If she had no trouble with mastitis nor high somatic cell counts, there is no need to consider mastitis treatment. Observe her carefully throughout the dry period for signs of mastitis and other diseases. Try to keep the cow in a good body condition (score 3.5 out of 5, see above). A few weeks before the expected calving team her up by giving 2 to 4 kg of energy rich feed per day. Introduce in-calf heifers to the dairy unit before calving for them to get used to the environment. Do not disturb the group dynamics close to calving by introducing new animals to the group. Normal calving will occur 280+-10 days from last service.

Cow calendar
(c) CAIS, Kenya

A cow calendar is a very useful tool in estimating calving dates of cows. The cow calendar consist of two separate but connected discs, the lower disc displaying the days of the year and the upper disc the interval between service date, repeat heat cycles, and calving date. It also shows when a cow should be dried and steamed up (stop milking and start feeding to prepare for normal calving and highest possible milk production). Such calendars can be ordered from CAIS (Central Artificial Insemination Station) Kenya. (Contact: CAIS – Tel: 4181325/6 – Email: info@cais.co.ke) 

Calving Signs 

The animal will portray the following signs before calving:

  • Swelling of the udder
  • Clear discharge of mucus from the enlarged vulva
  • Loss of appetite and restlessness
  • Relaxation of ligaments on both sides of tail

Precautions during calving 

The following precautions should be observed before calving to ensure safety of the mother and its calf:

  • Pay special attention to calving heifers as they are likely to have problems
  • Disinfect hind quarters before calving
  • Ensure that after the calf is born it is licked by the dam and is free of mucus at the nostrils, mouth and eyes
  • Naval cord should be cut and tied then disinfected with iodine
  • The newborn calf should be allowed to suckle the mother the first 24 hours to get colostrum. Make sure that the calf gets colostrum within two hours after being born
  • Placenta (afterbirth) should come out within 12 hours after calving
  • A veterinary doctor should be called in case of a difficult calving or retained placenta
Placenta being discharged. Credit: Su Kahumbu
Endearing moments. Happy Cow, healthy calf.
Credit:Su Kahumbu
Credit:Su Kahumbu

Sheep Internal Parasites

Credits:Biovision-Infonet

  • There are three broad types of internal parasite that can cause significant health issues in sheep – worms, flukes and protozoa.
  • Worms are thought to cost sheep owners more than any other disease.
  • Roundworms are the most common internal parasites of sheep.
  • Drench resistance is an emerging problem in managing sheep worms.
  • Worm infection is a significant animal welfare issue and, if not treated, can cause death. 

Worm management plan

It is important that everyone with sheep has a worm management plan. An effective plan is simple and will save a lot of money, effort and heartache. The essential elements of a worm management plan include:

  • Worm testing. It is cheap and easy to do. Without regular testing, you won’t know whether you have a problem, whether your worm management plan is working or whether you have an emerging drench resistance problem on your property.
  • Grazing strategy to create safe or low contaminant pastures for weaners and lambing ewes.
  • Maintaining good nutrition during periods of poor pasture growth.
  • Building worm resistance in the flock.
  • Biosecurity measures for new sheep arrivals on the property or any outbreak of worm disease in your flock (a sure sign that your worm management plan has failed).
  • Minimizing the risk of drench resistance developing on your property.

It is strongly recommended that you routinely do a worm test before you drench your sheep.

Worms – The signs to look out for

  • A typical sign of a worm problem is unthrifty sheep. An unthrifty sheep is one that is not eating properly, is losing condition, tends to lag behind the mob when moved and, in severe cases, is clearly weak. 
  • A worm problem often (but not always) results in sheep scouring and becoming ruffled. In severe cases, affected sheep may scour profusely. Other conditions can however produce these signs.
  • Young sheep are far more susceptible to worms than older sheep. 
  • Sheep under stress (e.g. during the later stages of pregnancy, during lactation, during drought or winter feed shortages) are more susceptible to worms.
  • A high-risk time in Kenya for worm infections in sheep is an especially long period of cold and wet weather – especially if this coincides with the later stages of pregnancy or lactation.
  • Other signs of worm infection one may see are anaemia or swelling under the jaw (commonly called “bottlejaw”). 
  • If you suspect a worm problem, it is worth doing a worm test to confirm it. Remember that “ill thrift” and scours, the major signs of a worm problem, can also occur with other diseases. So, acting purely on the clinical signs may result in a wrong (and costly) treatment.


Worm Control – General Principles

  • Most sheep have some worms in their digestive system. This is normal. Indeed, exposure to worms is essential if sheep are to develop and maintain immunity to worms. Worms are only a problem if the numbers increase to the point at which production losses occur or sheep become susceptible to other disease conditions. 
  • There are four components of an effective worm control program. They are drenching, grazing management, nutrition and breeding worm resistant sheep. Drenching alone will not resolve a worm problem. Too frequent drenching may reduce the sheep’s immunity to worms and increase the problem of drench resistant worms. Ad hoc or over-frequent drenching is one of the major causes of drench resistance and is, in most cases, a waste of money, time and effort.
  • The overall purpose of a worm control program should be to minimize production losses caused by internal parasites and to maximize the sheep’s immunity to worms. If these are achieved, the sheep will need fewer drenches. 
  • It is most important that sheep owners take a long-term and “integrated” approach to worm control. It is important that the design of worm control programs takes into account the major problem of drench resistance.

Drenching – The Basics

  • Drench is the common name for an anthelmintic, a chemical specifically designed to kill worms. 
  • Drenches can be “broad spectrum”, which means they treat a wide range of internal parasites, or “narrow spectrum”, which means they treat a restricted range of internal parasites
  • There are three main classes of broad spectrum drench:
    – Benzimidazoles or BZs, commonly known as white drenches – Levamisoles or LEVS, commonly known as clear drenches – Macrocyclic lactones or MLs, commonly known as mectins”Combination drenches” are mixes of two or more of these drench classes
  • In most cases, broad spectrum drenches are used to control worms. The most common use of narrow spectrum drenches is against liver flukes (broad spectrum drenches have little or no effect on the liver fluke). 
  • In most cases, drench is administered orally by a drenching gun. When drenching, it is important to: i. Shake the drench container first, as many drenches settle out. ii. Check that the right dose is being given. The dose rate will be on the drench container label.The dose should be calculated according to the heaviest sheep in the flock and all other adult sheep in the flock should be given that dosage. If the flock includes lambs, the dose rate for all lambs should be calculated according to the heaviest lamb in the flock. iii. Check that the drenching gun is calibrated to deliver the right dose. Drenching guns have a dial of some kind to adjust the dosage. After you have set the dosage rate for your sheep, squirt a single dose into a measuring container or medicine cup and check that amount against the intended dosage. If air is being sucked into the drenching gun as it reloads, this will result in under-dosing.
    • iv. Insert the drenching gun nozzle into the sheep’s mouth from the side, between the incisor and molar teeth, and make sure that the nozzle is above the tongue. After the dose has been delivered, make sure that the sheep has not dribbled or spat the drench out. v. When the entire flock has been drenched, clean the drenching gun by pumping cold water through it. Don’t use soapy water as this tends to damage the rubber seals in the drenching gun, which may then cause incorrect doses in the future. After cleaning the drenching gun, you can lubricate the rubber seals inside the drenching gun by pumping some vegetable oil through the gun (but do not use mineral-based oils, such as baby oil, as these will damage the rubber).
    • vi. Check the withholding period for the particular drench being used. Different drenches have different withholding periods.

vii. Store unused drench in the original container out of direct sunlight.

viii. If using old drench, check the expiry date, which should be on the container label.

Drenching – How Often?

  • There is no “one size fits all” drenching program. How often you drench will vary according to conditions on your farm. 
  • The basic principle in any drenching program should be to minimize the number of times a sheep is drenched – providing, of course, that effective worm control is maintained.
  • Under normal conditions, if worm control has been effective at reducing worm numbers on your property, a typical drenching program may be:i. For all sheep, one or possibly two dry season drenches, using an effective broad spectrum drench – one as the pasture dies off and the second in February or March. If your worm control program is effective, the second drenching may be unnecessary, so do a worm test first.ii. For lambing ewes, an additional drench pre-lambing may be necessary. If so, it can be done at the same time that they are vaccinated for pulpy kidney and tetanus – that is, 2 or 3 weeks before lambing.iii. Lambs should be drenched at weaning and then put onto a “safe” pasture. Further drenches may be necessary – for example when the weaners are moved onto the next “safe” pasture and again in cold and wet. To avoid over-frequent drenching of weaners, which will inhibit the development of their worm immunity later in life, use a worm test to help you decide if these additional drenches are necessary.
  • If you see the signs of a major worm disease outbreak in your sheep, you will need to act quickly. There is no “typical” emergency response to a worm disease outbreak, as it will depend on a range of issues specific to your farm. You will need to seek professional advice from your vet. However, the following general suggestions may be helpful:i. Firstly, you will need to check that worms are indeed the problem. A worm test will tell you whether there is a worm problem and, if so, which worms and how serious the problem is. Worm testing is the essential first step in dealing with any significant worm problem. ii. If worms are the cause of the problem, you will need to determine how this has come about. If you have been using a drench as part of your worm control program, the drench may have failed because of drench resistance. A drench resistance test could be undertaken to determine which drench will be effective in treating the worm problem.iii. You will need clean pasture to put your sheep on after they have had the emergency drench. iv. Each of the above three steps is most important. The emergency treatment is likely to fail if any of them are not done.

Drench Resistance

  • “Drench resistance” refers to the situation where worms have developed an inherited or genetic resistance to specific drench classes. Once worms have developed resistance to a particular class of drench, an increasing percentage can survive a dose of that class of drench. In other words, that class of drench will no longer be fully effective. 
  • Drench resistance is not the only reason that a drench may fail. Other reasons include:  i. The drench was not mixed before administering and had settled out.

ii. The drench was past its expiry date. iii. The drenching gun was not delivering the correct dose. Check that the gun is not sucking air when reloading and that the piston returns fully down the barrel before dosing another sheep. iv. Some sheep missed being drenched or dribbled the drench out. v. The wrong dose rate was used. Different drenches have different dose rates, so always read the label or contact the manufacturer if you are unsure.

What Can You Do to Delay the Onset of Drench Resistance on Your Property

Make absolutely sure you are administering the correct dose . Under dosing is one of the major causes of drench resistance. , as it helps the worms develop a drench resistance. Check the required dose on the label on the drench container. 

  • Always set the dose by the weight of the heaviest sheep in the flock. Administer this dose to all adult sheep in the flock. If the flock includes lambs, set the dose for all lambs by the weight of the heaviest lamb in the flock. Unless you are very experienced with sheep, it is not easy to guess the weight of a sheep. 
  • Check that the drenching gun is delivering the correct dose. If the drenching gun was not properly cleaned after the last time it was used, the drench residue in the gun may have corroded or otherwise damaged the internal seals. It may also cause the piston to be “sticky”, which means that it may not fully return after administering a dose, which in turn means that the next sheep would be under dosed. In any event, drenching guns should be serviced regularly. Repair kits for the more expensive drenching guns are not expensive and are available from rural agrovets.
  • Use the correct drenching technique. In particular, ensure that you are drenching over the tongue rather than squirting the drench into the front of the mouth. 
  • Fasting. When using white drenches (BZs) or mectins (MLs), the treatment is generally more effective if the sheep are fasted for 24 hours beforehand. Keeping the sheep off feed for six hours after drenching also helps make the treatment more effective. But note that ewes in the last six weeks of pregnancy, sheep in poor condition or stressed sheep should not be fasted at all. 
  • Overdosing will not help. However, with white drenches (BZs), two drenches twelve hours apart can be effective. (This applies to sheep but not to goats). Note that any departures from label recommendations will extend the withholding period and therefore require an off-label use advice note from a vet. 
  • After drenching, put the sheep onto clean pasture wherever possible. 
  • Rotate between the drench classes (BZs, LEVs, MLs) either at each treatment or each year. 
  • Use a worm test to monitor worm faecal egg counts (FECs). If you know the level of worms in your sheep, you will be best placed to avoid drench overuse, slow the development of drench resistance and save on drench costs. 
  • If you suspect drench resistances among your flock, do a drench resistance test. This will show you if any of the classes of drench are ineffective in your situation, in which case they should be dropped from your worm control program. If you wish to undertake resistance testing, discuss the process with your vet, animal health adviser, drench manufacturer or DPIPWE staff. 
  • It is most important that drenching is not the only strategy for worm control on your farm. 
  • Drenching should be just part of a program that includes pasture management, nutrition and selective breeding of worm-resistant sheep. 
  • Use a “quarantine drench” to treat any sheep coming onto the property. Unless you know the drench resistance status of these new sheep, the most effective “quarantine drench” is a combination drench (i.e. one containing both white and clear drenches) plus moxidectin, or otherwise just one of the mectins.
  • It’s recommended to maintain a “refugia” of susceptible worms within a flock as a way of delaying any onset of drench resistance Essentially, this involves leaving some susceptible worms (i.e. susceptible to your drench providing you know that the class of drench you are using is effective on your farm) in the flock. The point is to dilute the number of drench-resistant worms building up in the flock. This strategy involves simply leaving 5-10% of the flock undrenched. Of course, the ones not drenched must be the healthiest looking sheep in the flock. There is some controversy about this “refugia” strategy and it may not be appropriate in all circumstances, so please consult your vet before using it. 

Periparturient internal egg parasite rise 

A ewe’s natural-acquired immunity to internal parasites (worms) is weakened around the time of lambing. Scientists call this phenomenon the “periparturient rise” in worm eggs. This periparturient egg rise often occurs at the same time hypobiotic (inactive) worm larvae are resuming their life cycles in the spring. Thus, it is a common practice to deworm ewes during their last month of pregnancy. A dewormer that is effective against inactive larvae should be used. If there is no chance to become infected with internal parasites deworming is not advised. This could be the case when sheep are in rotational grazing and return after long periods (months) at the same plot.

Due to the widespread emergence of drug-resistant worms, another strategy is to increase the protein content of the late-gestation ration, as the primary parasite that affects sheep is a blood sucking worm (barber pole) that causes blood and protein loss. Higher protein rations have been shown to reduce egg counts in periparturient ewes.

Green Gram Bacterial blight (bean blight)

(Xanthomonas pv. phaseoli)

Credits: Biovision-Infonet

Bacterial blight blackening of veins (here on okra)
(c) A.M. Varela & A.A. Seif, icipe
Bacterial blight ( Xanthomonas campestris p.v. malvacearum) on young okra pod
(c) A.A. Seif & A.M. Varela, icipe

Leaf spots first appear as small, water-soaked or light-green areas on leaflets. They later become dry and brown. The spots may join to affect much of leaf surface eventually killing the leaflet. Similar water-soaked spots develop on pods. The spot margin is a shade of red. Severely diseased pods shrivel. In humid weather, a yellowish crust of the blight bacteria covers the spot surface.

What to do:

  • Cultural practices are important in controlling bean blights. Eliminate weeds, volunteer beans and other potential hosts of bean blight, as this will reduce disease incidence.
  • Good weed control will also improve aeration around the crop so that the plants dry faster, this will reduce the chances for bacterial spread and infection.
  • The bacteria are readily spread by water, and walking or working in the field while plants are wet will splash the bacteria and create wounds. Therefore avoid field operations when it is wet.
  • A rotation of at least 2 years between bean crops will give time for the bacteria population to decline in the debris.
  • Deep ploughing will also encourage the breakdown of infected plant debris.
  • The incidence of bean blight can also be reduced if beans are grown with maize rather than in a monoculture.

Problems Associated with Kidding

Credit: Biovision-Infonet

Abortion

Abortion is a premature expulsion of the foetus. This may be caused by specific infections i.e., toxoplasma, Chlamydia and campylobacter, or as a result of a general infection. Most abortions, however, result from non infection causes such as stress (transportation or chased by dogs for example), or by drugs such as prostaglandins (steroids) poisons, malnutrition and, sometimes, where there are multiple foetuses present. Gloves should always be worn when handling aborted tissue. Pregnant woman should NEVER handle aborted tissue. Seek veterinary assistance on any abortion.

Vaginal Prolapse

This is the protrusion of the vagina through the vulva caused by response to excess abdominal pressure. It is more common in multiple births. It can also be hereditary. Seek veterinary assistance immediately.

Mummified Kids

 Muffified kids are produced if the kid has died in the womb for any reason. It is not uncommon to have normal kids produced with a muffified kid. These are sometimes retained for some months and then expelled as bits of bone and tissue. If kids are left behind this may cause infertility, serious infection or even death.

Uterine Prolapse

 This is when the entire uterus is expelled via the vagina. It is a rare condition, occurring soon after kidding and may be subsequent to a retained placenta. Seek veterinary assistance immediately. In the meantime, keep the doe warm to prevent shock and keep the uterus as clean as possible (wrap it in a clean cloth).

Vulval Discharge

An odourless, reddish discharge (lochia) is normal for up to 14 days post kidding. If the discharge is darker and stickier than normal, or if it contains pus (indicating metritis) or if the goat seems unwell or is milking poorly, seek veterinary assistance immediately.

Retained Placenta

The foetal membranes should be expelled within 12 hours of kidding. Seek veterinary assistance if the placenta has not been seen. An ignored retained placenta will, nearly always, result in death.

Ovarian Cysts

Cystic ovarian disease in goats is an important cause of reproductive failure. The disease shows itself by short cycles with continuous oestrus (going on with heat) without conception. When the goat is in season it will bleat (make noise) a lot and show nymphomaniac behaviour (wanting to mate all the time).  
Cycstic ovarian disease has been proved to be linked to animals that grase clover and legumes in large quantities.
Prevention/Treatment: 1500 – 2500 iu humanchorionic gonadrophin (a drum which not readily available in East Africa). An alternative treatment is prostaglandin F2alpha which is available in most agrovet shops.

Malpresentations

These are not beyond the capabilities of a good stock manager. Clean your hands thoroughly and, holding your lubricated fingers in a cone shape, insert them gently into the birth canal and when you know what part of the kid is being present, gently manipulate the kid so that it’s head is resting on the two front feet. This may require gently pushing the kid back into the uterus in order to make more room for the manipulation. If the head is not visible the body of the kid needs to be pushed back until the head can be dropped into the correct position. Natural bath should follow.

Nasal Bot

Caused by flys which lay eggs in the nasal cavity. The maggots move into the sinus cavities. Symptoms include coughing, thick whitish mucoise discharge from the nostrils. The most effective treatment is Multidose available in most veterinary pharmacies. Some anthalmintics include nasal bot.  
Treatment / Prevention: The best prevention is control of fly and breeding areas (damp dark corners – such as under water buckets are preferred .

Rift Valley Fever (Ensootic hepatitis/RVF).

This disease is rainfall related and spread by mosquitoes (Bunyavirus). The onset of symptoms is fast. They include high temperature, stiffness, tremors and distress. Adults abort. Mortality can be high. No treatment .Vaccination is recommended at the first sign of an outbreak. (once per animal – lifelong immunity. However, vaccine is not always readily available.

Heartwater (Rickettsiosis)

Caused by Cowdria ruminantium (Rickettsia).spread by the Bont tick. Symptoms include loss of appetite, listlessness, rapid breathing followed by muscular tremors, circular movements, grinding of the teeth. Recovering animals show diarrhoea. Immune animals show slight fever. Mortality rate: Very high especially in young stock however, this disease is seldom seen in goats. Disease agent: A parasite by the name Cowria ruminantium spread by the bont tick.
Prevention: 

Weekly dipping or spraying with recommended acaricides to kill the ticks spreading the disease.  
Treatment:

Administration of a broad spectrum antibiotic can be effective if disease is caught in early stages. Treatment should start as early as possible, prefereably before the nervous symptoms occur. Antibiotics such as Oxytetracycline can be used. Do not import animals from a heartwater free area into a heartwater area without vaccination.

Trypanosomiasis

Only seen in areas of EA where the Tsetse fly is present. Caused by infection by the Tsetse fly. Symptoms include: yellow membranes and gums, lethargy, high temperature, reluctance to eat. Control by using ‘pour ons’ such as Typertick. Treatment for sick animals – Samarin. Consult your veterinary officer
NB: Where vaccination is recommended, various factors have to be taken into account such as area, the diseases which occur in your area and the management system. It is adviseable to vaccinate a month prior to kidding so that the immunity can be passed through the placenta to the unborn kid. Some of the above mentioned diseases are more prevalent during the rainy season. It is therefore, where appropriate, to vaccinate before the rainy season commences. If in doubt always consult your veterinary officer.

Foot Rot

Mainly caused by Fusiformis nodasus. Caused by continuous grazing or being housed on wet pasture/bedding. Not fatal but causes serious loss of production as the animals movement is restricted as their feet can become very painful. In extreme cases animals may not be able to move at all.
Prevention / Control :

Hygiene management is essential to avoid Foot Rot. The affected are of the foot must be well washed with a formalin solution / or copper sulphate. Foot rot spray should be applied until the infection is cleard. Avoid grazing /bedding animals on continuously wet pasture/housing and avoid stagnant water. Regular foot care is a good prevention.

Goat Parasites

Credit: Biovision-Infonet

Internal Parasites

Helminths (worms) are probably the most damaging parasitic infection in goats. Larvae build up in the herbage during the rain season. The extent of the infection will depend on the method of grazing management. Rotational grazing can help reduce the incidents of infection. A variety of helminths aaffect goats and include nematodes, cestodes and trematodes. These include Haemonchus contortus(barber pole worm), liverfluke, roundworms, lung worms, tape worms, etc.
Symptoms: swelling under the jaw, loss of body condition, dioarrhea, pale gums, thick nasal discharge, signs of worm presence in faeces.
 

Nematodes, cestodes and trematodes

Heamonchos contorous infection is greater in young animals. The critical period is up to 4 weeks of age. Pregnant does should be treated prior to birth and young stock should be treated by 2 weeks. Adults of the major intestinal parasites live in the animals gut where they mate. The eggs pass out with the faeces onto the pasture. When conditions are suitable the larvae hatch and are then ingested by grazing animals.
Prevention/Control: 

The control of infestation calls for good livestock management. Well fed stock suffer less than do poorly fed animals. Control is achieved by regular drenching with broad spectrum anthalmintics. There are a wide variety available and it is therefore adviseable to alternate to ensure that all helminths are covered. Keep goats in clean houses or bomas to avoid build up of a worm infestation. Routinely dose adult goats before mating, all kids at weaning and all stock before each rainy season. Alternate brands to avoid immunity to infestation. Keep goats in clean houses or bomas to avoid build up of a worm infestation. Routinely dose adult goats before mating, all kids at weaning and all stock before each rainy season. Alternate brands to avoid immunity to infestation.

Bloat

Most often occurs when animals consume large quantities of grain or very green matter, especially in a dry season. Changes in feeding of grains and concentrates should be done gradually.  Acute cases of bloat can follow the feeding of large amounts of dried alfafa leaves. If animals are eating lush leguminous feed they should have access to plenty coarse roughage.  
Control / Prevention: Use ‘Stop Boat’ at 1 ml per 40 lit in the water at the first signs of boat or if there is a sudden ‘flush’ in the grazing following a prolonged dry period. Use for at least a week.

External parasites 

Such as ticks, fleas, lice and mites, are dealt with by routinely dipping or spraying animals with recommended acaricides. External parasites transfer diseases between animals by sucking blood and should be kept firmly under control. When fleas and/or lice infest goats it should be dealt with promptly to avoid secondary infections of the skin, mange and, in serious cases, anaemia, all of which have an adverse affect on the welfare and milk production.

Goat Tethering

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Goats should NEVER be tethered by a leg. Always tether from the neck. This can be done by tethering to a peg allowing the goat to graze freely in a circle. Care must be taken that the tether does not wind round the peg continuously, preventing the goat from moving freely. Alternatively, the tether can be on a ring onto a ?picket line? or wire tide between two posts or trees. This allows the goat to move up and down the wire. Care should be taken that the tether is not so long that it can wrap around the goats neck or so short that the goat cannot move freely or lie down. Fresh water must be available to tethered animals, and where possible, shade should be available.

Goat Products

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Efficiency of Production

Efficiency of production in farm animals is defined as product per unit of food eaten by the animal. Unfortunately, it is not easy to calculate this in a way that makes comparison between different conditions and breeds. The following formula gives some measure of efficiency:

Efficiency (E) = (Product (P) : Food (F)) x 100

Where E is the efficiency, expressed as a percentage, P is the produce and F is the food intake.

Efficiency of Meat Production

Within species, efficiency of weight gain falls gradually as an animal grows. However, if animals of the same species, but of different mature size are compared at the same stage of physiological development, they appear to have similar efficiencies of weight gain. Thus faster growing larger breeds may not be more efficient than slower smaller breeds. It is possible to make adjustments for differences in mature size, so that percentage growth rates can give and indirect assessment of the efficiency of meat production rather than absolute growth rates.

The efficiency of growth can be affected by seasonal fluctuations of feed supply. Usually if an animal eats more it is likely to grow faster. Fluctuations in feed supply may cause live weight loss followed by compensatory live weight gain such as is often found when goats are grazed. Compensatory growth in goats has not been adequately studied, but it is not necessarily inefficient and farmers can take advantage of it. Faster growing goats are more efficient in energy storage but may be no better in protein storage than slower growing goats.

The food eaten by the dairy doe will include allowances for maintenance, pregnancy and lactation. In East Africa large litters are only feasible if the food supply is adequate. Extensive systems of grazing or conditions where the nutrient requirements of twin or triple births cannot be met are, therefore, disadvantageous. Most intensive rearing systems can meet the extra feed requirements.

 Efficiency of Milk Production

The efficiency of milk production relates to the question of the efficiency of goats as compared to other lactating ruminants such as the dairy cow. It is known that dairy cattle produce more food energy than beef cattle. A high yielding cow will generally appear to be more efficient than a low yielding goat. Alternatively, a high yielding goat will be more efficient than a low yielding cow. Efficiency of milk production in goats is affected by persistency, feed utilization and feed conversion efficiency. Goats have a flatter lactation curve and peak yields are reached between 8 – 12 weeks of lactation. Alternatively cows hae a maximum milk yield between 4 – 6 weeks. This suggests that goats are more persistent milkers.

Goats also produce a relatively higher milk yield per unit of live weight compared to a cow. The relatively higher milk yield in the goat is due to the relatively larger mammary gland and volume of secretory tissue comprising a greater proportion of the total body weight.
A high yielding animal converts feed to human food efficiently. Animals that yield more milk or grow more rapidly will be more efficient, largely because the maintenance overheads are spread over a great volume of production. This is true of any kind of feed but the farmer will wish to establish which feed gives the best performance.
With goats the large daily intake of feed and larger production of milk per unit of body weight are functions of a higher metabolic rate related to body size. 
 

Yield of Proteins from Meat and Milk

The most important criteria for successful goat production are the efficiency and yield of protein produced from meat and milk. It is well known that in cattle the yield of milk protein is superior to that of meat protein. This is because the efficiency compares the relative yield of protein in various meat and milk animals. The yield of proteins from indigenous goats is approximately 7 times and for exotic goats about 39 times that from meat goats. On a per hectare basis the results are high and even more striking.  
The yield of protein from goats compares with similar yields from indigenous dairy cattle. This implies that the dairy goat rather than the diary cow may become more useful for milk protein production.
Milk products from dairy goats is more advantageous by the availability of offspring (mainly males that are not required for breeding) for meat production. These considerations clearly indicate that milk protein production is an important contribution.

Products from Goats

Meat

Goat meat is the most important product from goats in East Africa. It is widely consumed. The colour of goat meat is usually dark and it is somewhat coarse in texture. The fat content is usually sparse and fat is yellow in colour. The sparse covering of fat on the meat and the tendency for the fat to be concentrated more on the viscera is one of the characteristics of the species. There is often a strong odour especially in the meat of uncastrated male goats. There is little or no processing of goat meat in East Africa. The meat is, generally, consumed where it is produced or sold in markets by butchers for immediate consumption.

Milk

Goat milk is widely consumed throughout East Africa. The daily yield of milk per doe varies between breeds and locations due to various environmental effects, but even a small supply is important in many regions where there is both continued under nutrition and malnutrition. The chemical composition of goat milk varies with the individual, breed, stage and order of lactaion, season and nutrition. Whilst the size of fat globules in goat’s milk is of the same order as in cow’s (1-10 iu m diameter) the content of small globules is greater.  

Goat milk also has relatively higher contents of fatty acid. Goat milk is a valuable source of aminoacids, is rich in histidine, aspartic and acid and tyrosine compared with cow’s milk and has a larger amount of non protein nitrogen. The nitrogen content of colostrum is higher than that of whole milk.  
The sodium, iron and copper contents of goat milk are relatively high. Goat milk has a higher content of Vitamin A, nicotinic acid, choline and inositol compared with cow’s milk but lower amounts of Vit B6 and ascorbic acid (Vit C). An important feature of goat milk is that, unlike cow’s milk, it contains no precursors of Vitamin A, the vitamin being present intact.

Table: Composition of goat milk compared to indigenous cow milk

Constituent (%)Goat milkCow milk
Total solids13.913.5
Fat4.84.8
Protein3.72.8
Non fat solids9.18.1
Ash0.850.74
Lactose5.04.6

Table; Comparison of vitamin content of goat milk and indigenous cow milk

Vitamin 
(mg per litre)		Goat milkCow milk
Vitamin A 2 0741 560
Vitamin D 23.7 
Thiamin 0.400.44
Riboflavin 1.841.75
Nicotinic Acid1.870.94
Vitamin B6 0.070.64
Pantothenic Acid 3.443.46
Biotin0.0390.031
Folic Acid 0.00240.0028
Vitamin B10.0060.004 3
Ascorbic acid1521.1
Choline150121
Inositol210110

There is limited processing of goat milk in East Africa. Individual goats or small groups of goats are milked by hand, usually by small farmers and the milk is used for domestic consumption or distributed for sale locally. Cheese making is conducted on a small scale. Occasionally butter and ghee (rendered butter) are produced from goat milk. 
 

Skins

Goat skins are a valuable by product, and in countries with high goat populations, these can earn valuable foreign exchange. The commercial value of skins is, generally, approximately 5 – 10% of the total value of the animal. The skins must be removed with care to preserve their quality for further processing. In organized abattoirs, this is some times achieved but skinning is likely to be less efficient in rural areas. If the skns can be transferred to the tannery with 24 hours no special treatment is necessary. However, some for of curing is necessary at the abattoir to preserve the skins for storage and transport.

  • Air drying. This is the simplest and cheapest method i.e., by stretching the hide on upright frames in open, well ventilated sheds where they are protected against sun and rain. The hides must be suspended so that they can dry on all sides. Occasionally arsenical solutions are used as a preservative and the hides and skins are soaked in the solution before air drying.
  • Use of Salt. This procedure requires more labour and care and is also relatively more expensive. The salt is applied to the flesh side of the skins. The skins are then stacked closely to allow for impregnation of the tissue. The stack is allowed to stand for about 10 days and is then rearranged with the topmost hide placed at the bottom. A slatted foor is helpful because this allows the brine to run off. Stagnant brine tends to spoil hides.
    Wet salting should be done in rooms where the temperature does not exceed 15.6deg C. With higher temperatures deterioration sets in. The alternative to wet salting is dry salting which is a combination of air drying and wet salting. In this sytem, the hides are allowed to dry after wet salting for a few days to remove the moisture. If the hides are marketed after wet salting the moisture content is high and this increases the cost of handling and transport.

Hair

Common Goat Hair: 

This type of hair varies with the breed. The fibres are usually multi coloured, very coarse and mostly medullated. They are sometimes straight, non elastic and of variable length. This type of hair is used in the manufacture of carpets, underfelts, ropes and coarse blankets and bags.

Abattoir by-products

A number of important abattoir by-products are produced during the organized slaughter of goats besides the skins. These are tallow (fat), meat, bone and blood meal. Tallow has a wide variety of industrial uses, perhaps the most important being the manufacture of soap. More recently it is used extensively as a valuable high energy animal feed – NOT encouraged for Organic Farming, as farm animals apart from dogs and cats are not supposed to eat animal products
Meat, bone and blood meal is a valuable protein feed and is used extensively for non ruminants such as pigs and poultry. Such protein feeds are in short supply and in intensive animal production these by products are very useful. Additionally, rumen contents can be used as an animal feed. This is particularly rich in the B vitamins.

Other by-products include glue from horn and hooves, various handicrafts from horns, gelatin from bones, hemoglobin from blood. In some parts of Africa the guts from goats are preserved in salt and exported for use as casings for sausage manufacture.  

Many parts of the offal of goats are potentially useful by-products and these are the following: Bladder, Kidneys, Blood, Lips, Bones, Liver, Brain, Lungs, Bristles, Meat Scraps, Condemned carcass and parts, reproductive organs, endocrine glands, Skin, Fat *, Spinal cord, Feet, Spleen, Gall bladder, gall and gall stones, Stomach, Hair, Sweet Breads, Head and Head trimmings, Tail, Heart, Tongue, Hide, Trachea, Hooves, Trimmings, Horns, Udder, Intestines and Wool. (*Highly contaminated or partially rancid fat unfit for human consumption) A number of the by-products listed above are edible and their extent and range are determined by such factors as affluence, preference, taste and customs. This is reflected in geographical differences in total edible percentage and total saleable percentage of slaughtered goats. In Africa the estimated total edible and saleable proportions are approximately 50%. Usually livers, kidneys, hearts, tongues, brains and head are sought after in urban areas.  
 

Cheese

Cheese made from goat milk is a much sought after product. However, it must be made properly from milk that is not tainted with the odour associated with goats. This odour comes through in the cheese very strongly and many people find it offensive. If you are planning on making cheese you will need a good recipe book and access to a supplier of starters and cultures, as most cheeses cannot be made without these. It is also essential to have a clean, dry room in which to make the cheese, where it will not be contaminated by dust and flies. A very simple but tasty and nutritious cheese is made in many cultures by leaving the milk to stand until it has ‘turned’. This process can be speeded up by warming the milk a little (to blood temperature) and adding a little lemon juice. When the curds have separated from the whey, the cheese should be hung in a muslin bag, over a basin, and allowed to drain overnight. The curds should then be flavoured with salt and pepper and, if you have them, chives. This makes a delicious ‘cottage or cream’ cheese. If not eaten the same day it will need refrigeration.

 Manure

Goat manure is a useful product with commercial value and is used in many parts of East Africa. The manure has a higher content of nitrogen and phosphoric acid than that of cows. The urine is rich in nitrogen and potassium. The manure is an excellent fertilizer and has the potential to increase crop yields.
 

Compost

A very efficient method of making compost is to stack the manure in a neat square pile (manure from other livestock can be added to make an even more valuable by product, i.e., cow, sheep, donkey, chicken and camel dung). Where possible the pile should be kept moist by watering. After two weeks the whole pile should be turned over and left to mature. Whilst this pile is maturing a second pile can be started. In this way the farmer has a continuous supply of compost for his farm or for sale.

Goat Information Source Links

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  • AIC Documentation Unit, Kenya
  • Devendra, C., McLeroy, G. B. (1982). Goat and sheep production in the tropics. Longman Group. ISBN: 0582609356.
  • Hetherington, L. (1996). All about goats. Farming Press Ltd. Norwich. ISBN: 0852362293.
  • Ian W. Skea: Keeping Goats in Kenya. Published by Ministry of Livestock Development, Kenya. Available from AIC documentation unit.
  • The Organic Farmer Magazine Nr 39 and 40, August, September 2008.

Lambing

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Ewes usually give birth to 1 to 3 lambs at each birthing event. Birthing is called lambing. The technical term for all species is parturition. Twin births is most common in well-managed flocks and with many breeds of sheep. First-time moms, especially yearlings, are more likely to have single births, though twins are not uncommon in some breeds. Ewes produce their largest litters of lambs when they are between the ages of 3 and 6.

The more lambs a ewe has the more feed she needs to produce milk for them. Oftentimes, extra lambs need to be cross-fostered onto other ewes or artificially reared.  Proflic breeds are not recommended for novice shepherds or in situations where nutrition and management are limiting factors.

Because some sheep are raised in more difficult environments, sometimes it’s more desirable for a ewe to have just one lamb. This is because there may not be enough food for the ewe to have enough milk for the growth of two lambs. If the flock has to travel far for food and water, it’s usually better to have one strong lamb than two or three smaller lambs that may struggle to keep up. Smaller, weaker lambs that lag behind the flock are more likely to be killed by predators

Birth weights

The weight of newborn lambs varies by breed, sex of lamb, litter number, and ewe nutrition. The lambs from medium to small breeds are similar in size to human babies, usually between 5 and 12 pounds, with an average of 8 to 10 pounds. When birth weights get too large (relative to the size of the breed or cross), difficult births can be encountered. Medium-size newborn lambs (for the breed or cross) tend to have the highest survival rate.