iCowApp

Credits: Biovision-Infonet

General Housing requirements 

As has been pointed out, cattle will be more efficient in the production of milk and in reproduction if they are protected from extreme heat, i.e. temperatures of 25 to 30degC, and particularly from direct sunshine. Thus in tropical and subtropical climates shade becomes an important factor. If cattle are kept in a confined area (zero grazing), it should be free of mud and manure in order to reduce hoof infection to a minimum. Concrete floors or pavements are ideal where the area per cow is limited. However, where ample space is available, an earth yard, properly sloped for good drainage is adequate. In a semi zero grazing system animals are grazed in the morning and stall fed in the evenings, commonly practiced in medium size farms.

Sun and Shade

If trees are not an option to provide enough shade during the whole day for all cattle, a structure allowing 2.5 to 3m per animal will give the minimum desirable protection to one or two animals. A 3x7m roof will provide adequate shade for up to 7 cows. The roof should be a minimum of 3 m high to allow air movement. If financially feasible, all the area that will be shaded some time during the day should be paved with good quality concrete. The size of this paved area depends on the orientation of the shade structure. If the longitudinal axis is east and west, pan of the floor under the roof will be in shade all day. Extending the floor approximately one third its length on the east and on the west, a paved surface will provide for the shaded area at all times. If the longitudinal axis is north and south, the paved area must be 3 times the roof area i.e. 1/3 to the east, 1/3 to the west and l/3 underneath. Obviously this means an increase in the cost of paving. In deciding which orientation to build, the following factors need be considered:

• With the east-west orientation the feed and water troughs can be under the shade which will allow the cows to eat and drink in shade at any time of the day. The shaded area, however, should be increased to 3 to 4m2 per cow. By locating the feed and water in the shade, feed consumption will be encouraged, but also more manure will be dropped in the shaded area which in turn will lead to dirty cows.
• With the north-south orientation, the sun will strike every part of the floor area under and on either side of the roof at some time during the day. This will help to keep the floored area dry. A shaded area of 2.5 to 3m2 per cow is adequate if feed and water troughs are placed away from the shaded area.
• If it is felt that paving is too costly, the north-south orientation is the best choice in order to keep the area as dry as possible.
• In regions where temperatures average 30degC or more for up to five hours per day during some period of the year, the east-west orientation is most beneficial

The gable roof is more wind resistant than a single pitch roof and allows for a center vent. A woven mat of local materials can be installed between the rafters and the corrugated iron roof to reduce radiation from the steel and lower temperatures just under the roof by 10degC or more.

Yards 

If space is severely limited and only 4 to 5m2 per cow is available, then concrete paving is highly desirable. If up to 40 to 60m2 per cow is available, then unpaved yards should be quite satisfactory as long as the feed and shade areas are paved and the yard is graded for good drainage. If the farmer is unable to afford an improved structure such as a shade or a paved area for feeding, then conditions can be prevented from becoming intolerable by building mounds of earth in the yard with drainage ditches between them as shown in Figure 1). 

From 20 to 30m2 per cow will keep the animals out of the worst of the mud. The soil in the mounds can be stabilized by working chopped straw or straw and manure into the surface. A number of trees in the yard will provide sufficient shade.

Loose housing with Deep-Bedded Sheds

In a deep-bedded system, straw, sawdust, shavings or other bedding material is periodically placed in the resting area so that a mixture of bedding and manure builds up in a thick layer. Although this increases the bulk of manure, it may be easier to handle than wet manure (slurry) alone. This system is most practical when bedding material is plentiful and cheap. Table 1) gives the space requirements for various ages of animals when there is access to a yard. By designing the building to be partially enclosed on the east and west, the shading characteristics can be improved. In as much as a well drained earth floor is quite adequate, such a building will compare favourably in cost with a shaded area which is paved. 

Loose Housing with Free Stalls (Cubicles) 

Alley between a row of free stalls and a trough (increase to 40.m if there are more than 60 cows in the group)	2.7-3.5m
Alley between a row of free stalls and a wall	2.0-2.4m
Alley between two rows of free stalls	2.4-3.0m
Alley between a feed trough and a wall	2.7-3.5m

Table 2: Alley Widths in Conjuction with Free Stalls(Cubicles)

(c) Farm structures in tropical climates.www.fao.org

Although simple yard and a shade or yard and bedded shed systems are entirely satisfactory in warm climates, particularly in semi-arid areas, some farmers may prefer a system with somewhat more protection and want to keep more cows in a smaller barn. A loose housing yard and shed with free stalls is an option for that. Less bedding will be required and less manure will have to be removed. Free stalls must be of the right size and bars adjusted in order to keep the animals clean on the one hand and to reduce injuries to a minimum to the other hand. When stalls are too small, injuries to teats will increase and the cows may also tend to lie in other areas that are less clean than the stalls. I can also cause leg problems because it is difficult to squeeze in the cubicles and to get up. If the stalls are too large, cows will get dirty from manure dropped in the stall and more labour will be expended in cleaning the shed area. A bar placed across the top of the free stalls will prevent the cow from moving too far forward in the stall for comfortable lying down movements, and it will encourage her to take a step backwards when standing so that manure is dropped outside the stall. The bar must, however, not interfere with her normal lying and rising movements. In organic dairy, cows should be grazed when soil and weather conditions allow it part of the day.   

Table 1 (see above) lists recommended dimensions for stalls. Cubicles can be made of locally available material (wood) or can be purchased. The floor of the stall must be of a non-slippery material, such as soil. A good foothold is essential during rising and lying down movements to avoid injury. A 10 cm ledge at the back edge of the free stall will prevent bedding from being pulled out to the alley. In organic dairy the number of stalls should correspond with the number of animals housed.

Young stock may be held in yards with shade or in sheds with either free stalls or deep bedding.The alley behind the free stalls (cubicles) must be wide enough to allow the cows smooth passage. when cows are eating, two cows must be able to pass each other (see Table 2 below). The larger the cows are, the more space they need to lay down and pass.

Tie-Stall Sheds 

Only in the case of purebred herds where considerable individual attention is given to cows can a tie-stall system be justified in tropical areas. In organic farming in Europe tie stall for cattle are forbidden because they severely limit animals in their natural behaviour. If such a system is chosen, stalls and equipment can be purchased or manufactured locally. Table 3 provides some typical dimensions.

If cows are allowed to lie with their heads over the through, otherwise add 0.4 – 0.5 m to the length.The tie and feed barrier construction must allow the cow free head movements while lying down as well as standing up, but should prevent her from stepping forward into the feed trough. Most types of yokes restrict the cow’s movements too much. A single neck rail, set about 1 m high and 0.2m in over the merger may bruise the cow’s neck when she pushes forward to reach the feed. The feed barriers that best meet the requirements are shoulder supports and the comfort stall. the fixing rods for the cross tie which allows vertical movements of the chain. Stall partitions can be used between every second cow to prevent cows from trampling each other’s teats and to keep the cow standing straight so that the manure falls in the gutter.

Bull Pens

A bull pen should have a shaded resting area of 12 to 15 m2 and a large exercise area of 20 to 3 0m2. The walls of the pen must be strong. Eight horizontal rails of minimum 10 cm round timber or 5 cm galvanised steel tubes to a total height of 1.5 m and fixed to 20 cm timber posts not more than 2 m apart will be sufficient. The gate must be designed so that the bull cannot lift it off its hinges and there should be at least two exits where the herdsman can escape. A service stall where the cow can be tethered prior to and during service is usually provided close to the bull pen. The stall can have ramps at the sides to support the bull’s front feet.

Calf Housing 

The calves must be duly protected from cold, rain and too hot sun especially when very young. They must also be kept clean and free from ticks and fleas. Use gentle insecticides like pyrethrum (dudukrin) on very young calves. The tender skin of young calves can absorb the more poisonous sprays often used on mature animals and give the calves signs of poisoning.

Calf pens 

Calf mortality is often high in tropical countries, but proper management and suitable housing that protects the calf from climatic stress, infections and parasites can reduce this. The best way to achieve that is suckling the calf with the mother till an age of about 3-4 month. The cow should be in a clean area and be able to find shelter against the sun and heavy rains. Calves should be provided with water in a bucket, feed in feed trough and salt lick. A system that works well is the use of individual or group hutches with an outdoor area. The hutch must be thoroughly cleaned set up in a new location each time a new calf is housed in it. Plenty of litter is placed directly on the ground inside the hutch. Protection from wind, rain and sun is all the calf requires, but always moving the hutch to clean ground is the key to success. Good hygiene must be kept by properly cleaning and disinfecting the housing before restocking.

Dry straw as beddings is to be provided on cemented floor daily and ventilation and sunlight if the pens are in the house be allowed. Individual pens for calves in organic regulations is allowed till 2 weeks after birth and then moving to a group pen. The floor of the pen is best constructed from 37 to 50 mm by 75 to 100 mm sawn timber boards leaving a 25 to 30 mm slat between each board. It will ensure that the calf is always dry and clean. The required minimum internal dimensions for an individual calf pen are 120 by 80 cm for a pen where the calf is kept to two weeks of age. Three sides of the pens should be tight to prevent contact with other calves and to prevent draughts. Draughts through the slatted floor may be prevented by covering the floor with litter. The front of the pen should be made so that the calf can be fed milk, concentrates and water easily from buckets or a trough fixed to the outside of the pen and so that the calf can be moved out of the pen without lifting. The milk fed to the calf will not provide it with enough liquid and therefore it should preferably have continuous access to clean fresh water.

All calves should have access to easy digestible grain or by-products and good quality forage as soon as possible to stimulate rumen development and to learn them to not only drink milk. Forage can be supplied in a rack placed above the side wall of the pen. Calf pens are recommended where the cows are kept in a semi-zero grazing or zero grazing system. Even in those systems it is possible to have the calf with the cows in the herd and let them suckle.  

There are four common types of calf pens:

• Calf hutches with an outdoor area: are moved before a new calf comes in.
• Permanent calf pen with slatted floor
• Permanent calf pens with cemented floor: these are cubicles, stone built at 1.5 m x 1.2 m, sloped for free drainage 
• Mobile or portable calf pens: Roofed and kept outside. Slats are not necessary for this type as it is moved in pasture from point to point every 2 days 

Housing for the Small Herd 

For the small holder who wants to make the very best use of his crop land and to provide his cattle with good housing that will encourage high production, a zero grazing system with an outdoor run could be recommended. Figure 3 shows perspective, elevation and plan views of a zero grazing unit for 3 cows, 2 heifers and a young calf. After that consideration should be given to two milking places and a larger feed store. Gum poles may be used instead of the cedar posts and sawn rafters, but any wood in contact with or within 50 cm of the ground should be well treated with wood preservative. It is desirable to pave the alley, but if that is not possible, the distance between the free stalls (cubicles) and the feed trough should be doubled or tripled.

A concrete pit or sloping slab in which to accumulate manure is essential. If the alley is paved, the pit can also collect urine. In fact, paving the alley not only saves space, but the value of the urine will help to pay for the paving. 

The circular manure tank shown in the figure has a volume of 10m3. This will be adequate to store the manure produced during one month plus any rainfall collected in the alley. If more stalls are added the capacity of the tank will need to be increased or the interval between the emptyings shortened.

A water tank to collect water from the roof can be very useful unless there is an abundant supply of water nearby.

Housing for the Medium to Large Scale Herds 

For the farmer with up to about 30 cows a yard with paved shade and feed area would be suitable. The yard and feeding area may alternatively be combined with an open sided barn designed for deep bedding or equipped with free stalls and where the herd consists of high yielding cows the milking shed may be equipped with a bucket milking machine. Some farmers with up to 30 cows may even consider using an open sided tie-stall shed.

In general a medium or large scale dairy unit may include the following facilities:

1. Resting area for cows: – Paved shade, or – Deep bedding in an open sided barn, or – Free-stalls in an open sided barn
2. Exercise yard (paved or unpaved)
3. Paved feed area:- Fence line feed trough (shaded or unshaded), or- Self feeding from a silage clamp
4. Milking Centre:- Milking shed or parlour, and- Collecting yard (part of the exercise yard), and- Dairy including milk store, and- Motor room
5. Calving pen(s)
6. Calf accommodation
7. Young stock accommodation (yard with paved shade and feed area)
8. Bulk feed store (hay and silage)
9. Concentrate feed store
10. Veterinary facilities:- Diversion pen with Artificial Insemination stalls, and- Isolation pen
11. Waste store:- Slurry storage, or- Separate storage of solids and effluents
12. Office and staff facilities

Each of the parts of the dairy unit may be planned in many different ways to suit the production management system, and the chosen method of feeding.

Some requirements and work routines to consider when the layout is planned are as follows:-

• Movement of cattle for feeding, milking and perhaps to pasture.
• Movement of bulk feed from store to feeding area and concentrates from store to milking shed or parlour.
• Transfer of milk from milking shed or parlour to dairy and then off the farm. Clean and dirty activities, such as milk handling and waste disposal, should be separated as far as possible.
• The diversion pen with Artificial Insemination stalls and any bull pen should be close to the milking centre as any symptoms of heat or illness are commonly discovered during milking and cows are easily separated from the rest of the herd while leaving the milking.
• Easy and periodical cleaning of accommodation, yards, milking facilities and dairy, and transfer of the waste to storage and then to the fields.
• The movements of the herdsman. Minimum travel to move cows in or out of milking area.
• Provision for future expansion of the various parts of the unit.Further considerations when planning to build:- Construct units according to approved plans obtained from livestock extension office- Such plans gives dimensional specifications and materials, for cubicles, feed troughs, water troughs, calf pens, milking parlor, feed store, floor slope, etc.- Use of durable cheaply available materials is recommended- A cemented floor is preferred because of the constant washing required

House hygiene: 

Remove dung daily, clean floor daily. Remember that the dung and urine is a valuable resource in and organic farming system and should be used on the land for keeping soil fertility.