iCowApp – Page 25 – Portal for the icow Apps content

Pig Feeding

Credits:Biovision-Infonet

Pigs must be fed to ensure quality rather than maximum growth rates.
Pigs must be fed on organically produced feed (60% of home-grown feed can be in-conversion feed).
Roughage, fresh or dried fodder (grazing) or silage must be added to the daily ration.
Certain feed materials of animal origin (milk or milk products and fish or fish by-products) and minerals and vitamins (including synthetic vitamins for pigs) can be used.
Antibiotics, coccidiostatica, medicinal substances, growth promoters and any substances intended to stimulate growth or production must not be used in pig feed;
Piglets must be suckled at least for 42 days

For pig rearing to be an economical venture special attention should be paid to both quality and quantity of feeds fed. High growth rate and fertility can only be achieved through proper feeding. In pig production, feeds contributes to 60 to 80% of the total rearing cost and it is therefore important to feed recommended quality and quantity for each pig category. Proper troughs are important to minimise feed wastage especially where floor is not cement or where litter is applied on cemented floor..

Pigs are known to eat a wide range of feeds available at farm level including kitchen swill and green farm by-products. However their growth performance will depend on the feed quality. Lower quality feeds will give lower growth performance but could be economically profitable because of the relatively low price and or the availability at the farm. Pigs must be fed the correct quantity of the right feed mixture for the performance they have to deliver. The nutrient requirements, especially digestible energy and protein, of the various production classes differ. These production classes include:

boars and pregnant sows
sows with piglets (lactating sows)
young pigs, three to 10 weeks old
growing pigs up to slaughter at a live weight of 60 or 110 kg.

Feed sources

The main resources for feeding pigs are cotton seed cake and prairie meal, with gluten feed as a source of protein. Pigs are in competition with humans for maize, their main source of energy. Other energy sources include milled by-products such as the bran from wheat, maize and rice, along with maize grain, wheat grain and semi-refined oil. Limestone is the main local mineral source. Although there is no shortage of animal feed in Kenya, the cost is high and in some areas quality is not the best. Concentrates, for instance, are available but very expensive. The cost of feed has increased by 450 percent in the last three years (KENPFA). The main feeds types manufactured are Pig Creep pellets for piglets, Sow & Weaners for breeders and Pig Finisher for fatteners. Sow & Weaner, which is preferred by most farmers, is produced in the highest volumes by most companies. Challenges facing this area include a poor quality and high cost of ingredients as well as concentrates; inadequate and hard-to-access mineral supplementation; unavailability of local sources of vitamins, amino acids, macro- and micro-nutrients; frequent drought.

Feed mixtures can either be bought or the farmer can mix them himself. The latter is less expensive but it is important to consult an expert on how to mix the feedstuffs that have to be included in the mixtures for each of the production classes. The various feedstuffs must be weighed off correctly before mixing.
Feed mixtures for each of the pig categories must contain the right quantities of the following nutrients, namely:

digestible energy (DE)
proteins
minerals
vitamins.

Pigs are monogastric animals and digest crude fibre to a much lower extend than ruminants do. When feeding green plant material or by-products, it should be preferably young not fibrous feed. In table 1 the energy content (DE) for pigs is given, as well as the protein content and mineral and trace-elements. When no analysis from farmers own feeds are available, the values from this table can be used to estimate the feeding value of the rations for pigs. One should realize that the chemical composition of feeds can differ because of different growing, harvesting and storage conditions.

Table 1. Dry matter content, chemical composition and digestible energy (DE) of feeds for pigs

Roughage	DM	CF	CP	Ash	DE	Ca	P	K	Na	Mg	Mn	S	Zn	Cu	Fe	Co	Se	Mo
Acacia, husk	92	26	11	4.1	9	3.8	1.6	12	0.1	1.5	22		18	5	68
African locust bean, pod husks	94	24	4.7	8.9	9
African locust bean, pod pulp	35	15	4.9	4.6	12	13.2	17.6
African locust bean, pods	93	19	14	6.7	11.5
Banana, shoots	15	48	7.7	16.2	2.6	8.1	2.6
Banana, stalks	7	29	5.1	15.4	7.4	7.5	2.9	53.5	0.7	9.2			129	4	310
Banana, trunk	7	24	3.5	11.3	8.8	7	0.9	40.8		3.7
Barley, straw	91	41	3.8	7.1	2.4	4.9	0.8	8.2	0.7	1.1	17		16	17	156
Cassava, foliage fresh	23	18	25	7.4	12.4	11.9	3.7	12.5	0.6	7.3			25	29
Cassava, foliage silage	24	18	24	7.9	12.4	25.1	3.3			8.6			33	31
Cassava, foliage wilted	37	11	26	8.2	15.2	14	3
Cocoa hulls	89	21	18	9.3	3.7	3.7	4.4	26.8	0.2	4.3				39
Cocoa pod husks	91	29	7.7	11.2	7.7	5.7	3.4	50.1	0.1	5.4	95		85	38	1180
Coffee hulls	89	36	9.4	6.5	6.5	4.5	1.4	22.6	0.2	0.9	31		56	18	233
Groundnut hulls	91	64	6.9	5.3	0	2.4	0.7	7	0.1	1.2	42		64	11	186
Leucaena	30	20	23	8.5	11.2	10.7	2.1	18.9	0.2	3.9	65		30	13	261
Luzerne, fresh	20	27	21	11.5	8.7	19.5	2.5	22.4	0.5	2.8	77		44	13	392
Mango, peels	16	8	6.2	2.8	13.8
Rice straw	93	35	4.2	18.1	5.4	2.9	0.9	18	2.7	1.9	454		34	6	335
Sugarcane forage, fresh	23	34	4.1	7	6.7	1.9	1.1	20.4	0.5	1.4	37		225	7
Sunflower, stover	76	48	5.7	8.4	2.7	11.2	0.8			5.4
Wheat, straw	91	42	4.2	6.7	2.3	4.8	0.7	11.1	0.1	1.2	32	1.1	17	3	190			1.3

Grains, seeds, by products	DM	CF	CP	Ash	DE	Ca	P	K	Na	Mg	Mn	S	Zn	Cu	Fe	Co	Se	Mo
Acasia, seeds	93	9	28	4.3	14.6	2.8	4.2	10.7		2.8
African locust bean, seeds	90	9	32	4.4	17.1
Barley, grain	87	5	12	2.6	14.8	0.8	3.9	5.9	0.1	1.3	19	1.2	30	12	184	0.4	0.1	1.1
Brewers grain, fresh	26	17	26	4.2	13	3	5.7	1.6	0.3	2.3	43		83	14	138
Brewers grain, silage	25	16	28	5	13.3
Cassave, peels dry	87	14	5.2	5.8	13.2	4.5	0.8	7.1		1.1
Cassave, tubers peeled, fresh	29	1	2.2	3.8	16	1	0.4
Cassave, tubers, fresh	38	4	2.6	2.8	15.7	1.6	1.2	7.7		1.1
Cotton seed meal, high oil, low fibre	92	11	45	7	13.5	2	12.4	16.6	0.3	6.3	14		66	17
Cowpea, seeds	90	6	25	4.3	14.8	1.1	4.1	14.7	0.1	2.3	21		41	10	525
Fish meal, high protein	92		75	13.6	19.5	26.5	22.3	11.9	10.9	3.1	10		99
Fish meal, low protein	93		48	35.2	16.5	79.3	39.8	11.1	28.4
Fish meal, medium protein	92		71	18.4	18.1	43.4	27.9	8.7	11.3	2.3	16		96	7	367
Maize bran	89	13	12	5.9	11.3	4.8	3.4	7.1	0.8	2.1	18		107	6	64
Mango, pulp	18	7	4.2	3.3	14.1	1.9	1.1	13.3		1.5
Millet grain	91	7	14	3.7	15	0.4	3
Millet hulls/husk	92	46	2.4	9.2	1.1		0.5	3.7	0	0.3
Pawpaw,peels	9	7	9	4.6	13.8
Pumpkin, fruits	8	13	15	7.9	12.4	3.9	2.6
Rice bran	92	28	8.8	13.6	8.8	4.7	7.4	6.3	0.3	2.1	186	1.9	71	10	239		0.2	2.8
Sorgum grain, ground	87	3	11	2.1	15.7	0.3	3.3	4.3	0.2	1.8	12	1.1	24	5	120		0.5	1
Sorgum, bran and milling offal	90	6	12	4.7	15	0.9	4.9	5.6	0.1	2.4	35		40	9	250
Soyabean ,hulls	89	39	13	5.3	9.2	5.5	1.6	13.7	0.1	2.6	25	1.2	48	8	699	0.1	0.2	1.6
Soyabean, cake (expeller)	91	5	49	6.8	18.1	4.6	7.2	21	0.2	3.2	39	1	72	17	129			3.8
Sugarcane molasses	73	0	5.5	14.6	13.3	9.2	0.7	51	2.4	4	74		18	6	173
Sunflower, cake	92	26	28	5.7	12.1	3.9	9.2	11.2	0.1	3.6	35	2.1	53	26	144		0.5	1.8
Sweet potato vines	15	20	13	11.8	7.4	12.4	3.1	14.2	3.7	7	131		45	11
Wheat, bran	87	10	17	5.6	10.8	1.4	11.1	13.7	0.1	4.6	113	2.1	89	14	157		0.5	2.5
Wheat, grain	87	3	13	1.8	15.9	0.7	3.6	4.6	0.1	1.2	40	1.5	31	6	78		0.3	1.3
Wheat, pollard	90	7	15		11.5	1	7

Many commercial pig farmers also grow food crops, the surplus produce or by-products which can be used to feed the pigs. This food source plays an important role in pig feeding, especially in free range and small-scale production systems. Crops and by-products include sweet potato vines, kales, cabbages, Napier grass, sugar cane cuttings, sugar cane tops, garden weeds, mangoes, tomatoes, oranges, avocadoes, peelings and market by-products/ waste. The use of feeds such as cereal residues, cassava and potatoes has been shown to save up to 20 percent on feed costs for growing pigs and 50 percent for breeding pigs.

Grains and by-product

Grain and by-product constitutes between 55 and 70% of the total feed mixture. The grain in a mixture provides mainly energy (between 60 and 80% of the total DE in the mixture) it also contributes substantially (30 to 60%) to the protein content of the mixture.

Grain by-products such as wheat bran, maize bran, maize leaves, maize-stalks and maize-cobs are used to dilute the DE content of the mixture. Brans have a protein content higher than that of grains and are also relatively inexpensive.

Cane molasses

Has been recommended as an additive to improve the palatability of dry rations, and particularly in cane-producing countries, as an addition to concentrate or swill-based rations at levels up to approximately 30 percent. Higher levels have generally not been recommended due to difficulties in handling and mixing; loose faeces associated with diarrhoea; dirtier animals and floor pens, and most importantly, an increasingly inferior feed conversion as higher levels of molasses were used.

Plant protein sources

Oilcake meals
Soya-bean oilcake meal and sunflower oilcake meal are plant protein feedstuffs usually included in pig feed mixtures. Soya-bean oilcake is of a higher and better quality protein and contains considerably less fibre than sunflower oilcake.
Full-fat oilseeds
Full-fat soya-bean and sunflower seed meals have a high oil content. The oil results in soft fat in pig carcasses. Therefore, the inclusion of these two feedstuffs, if fed in combination with maize, must be limited in rations for finishing pigs.
Lucerne
Lucerne is also used. It has a high fibre and low DE content. Therefore, the inclusion of lucerne in feed mixtures for pigs must be limited.

Animal protein sources

By-products of the animal and fishing industry can be used as animal protein sources for pigs.
Fishmeal -Fishmeal is the most frequently used and best protein source to include in feed mixtures. It also has a high DE content.
Blood and carcass meal – Bloodmeal has a very high nutritional value. Do not, however, use more than a maximum of 5% in feed mixtures because it is unpalatable. It becomes burnt easily during processing, which has a detrimental effect on the quality of the proteins. In some countries it is not allowed to feed animal by-products because of risk for human health.

Calcium and phosphorus sources

Feed lime is a good calcium source and is not very expensive, but it contains no phosphate. Monocalcium phosphate, dicalciumphosphate and bonemeal are usually included as sources of phosphate. These sources also contain calcium, but in smaller quantities than feed lime.

Waste products in pig feed mixtures

The utilization of kitchen wastes (swill) from institutions such as hospitals, schools or hotels, and the use of brewery wastes, processing, slaughter wastes and agricultural residues, if used to feed pigs, would help to reduce feed costs and also reduce environmental pollution. Biological wastes are subject to rapid deterioration and contamination by micro organisms, some of which are extremely pathogenic Waste products must therefore be used with great caution in pig rations. Another danger is that hard objects such as pieces of broken glass, which can injure the pigs, are sometimes found in waste products. On smallholder farms, wet biological waste form kitchens should be fed the same day as they are produced. On larger farms there is a possibility to ensile it, or heat itl (swill should be boiled for 30 minutes and cooled before feeding.), preferably complete sterilization, biological wastes can be completely decontaminated and safely used as alternative feedstuffs.
These products are usually high in moisture (water) content and therefore have a very low nutritional value when fed in a wet form.

Use wet biological waste products the same day as they are produced
Be aware of sharp hard objects in the waste.
For larger quantities: use waste products in an air-dry form.
Use a flat cemented area in the sun for drying the waste.
Remove any undesirable material from the waste when it is spread out on the cemented area.
After drying, grind the waste in a hammer mill. The milled meal can then be used to replace part of the ingredients when mixing pig rations.

Nutritive value of kitchen waste

Only when large quantities are available it is advisable to have it analysed for protein, fat, fibre, calcium and phosphate content by an analytical laboratory. Thereafter it is important to get the advice of a pig nutritionist on how much of the dried waste meal must be included in a pig ration. The nutritive value of biological waste differs with the materials in it and can be very useful in pig feeding, when precautions are taken for good animal health.

Nutritional requirements

For good production a pig should be supplied with the nutrients it demands for its production. Nutritional requirements of animals are determined by means of research and summarized in tables, booklets etc. Many countries have manuals of feeding standards. The art/experience of the farmer in the finer adjustments of feed intake to meet the performance of the animal is also important. The ideal body condition for breeding animals (sow and boar) is 3 on a 5 point scale. All sows should be at 3 – 3.5 at the time of farrowing and 2 or more at weaning. Feed allowances should be adjusted to keep animals in the desired body condition. The body condition is assessed by feeling the bones along the backbone, over the ribcage, over the loin and over the pin bones at the base of the tail. Most importance should be given on the results of the backbone and the ribs.

Score Definition

1 emaciated Bones clearly visible

2 thin Bones can be felt without pressure when the palm of the hand is laid flat on the skin

3 ideal Bones can be felt only with firm pressure when the palm of the hand is laid flat on the skin

4 fat Bones can be felt went fingertips are pressed into the skin

5 obese No bones can be felt.

There are a number of essential elements that must be provided through the feed to the pigs. These include fibre, energy, protein, minerals, trace elements and vitamins as Lysine, Methionine and Cystine. The energy in feeds must be quit high to reach high production. With low energy feeds in the ratio the production will,be lower. That will be the case in feeds with higher fibre contents (roughages) and in most by-products. Minerals and vitamins should be supplied sufficiently because of animal health [click here to get to the section on signs of deficiencies chapter Nutrition]. In mixed rations with green forages the requirements will be met.

Pig feed requirement

	Creep	Sow and weaner	Fattener starter	Grower finisher	Lactating Sow feed
DE Mj /kg	14	12.8	13.8	13.4	13.4
% DCP (min)	16	15	14	13	13
CF (max)%	4	6	5	6	8
EE (max)%	7	7	6	7	7
Lys (min)%	1.25	0.6	0.95	0.75	0.6
Methionine+Cystine (min)%	0.7	0.35	0.55	0.45	0.45
Ca (min-max)%	0.8-1.0	0.8- 1.0	0.7-0.85	0.6 – 0.75	0.9 – 1.1
P (min)%	0.75	0.7	0.6	0.5	0.6

Making Rations

A ration is a combination of different feedstuffs (ingredients) indicating how much of each feedstuff has been used and the nutritive value it is contributing. A complete ration therefore contains all the nutrients needed in proper proportions. The quality of a ration will depend on the quality of the feedstuffs used. It must be sure that the ration can be eaten by the pig: it should not exceed the maximum intake capacity. In bulky feeds with low feeding value per kg of feed this can be a problem. In feeds with high fibre content, pigs cannot use the protein in the feed efficient because of low digestibility.

Rations for pigs on smallholder farms will contain local products and might change with the season and availability of roughages and by-products. The pigs are integrated in the farm and should not compete with humans in feed-ingredients (for instance grains) and purchased feed must be profitable for the farmer. Analyses of feed are not available and rations are estimated based on average feeding values of feeds (see table 1).

Farmer ration

Own farm rations can help to reduce the cost of feeding the pigs considerably, however feed mixing must be done thoroughly and analysis of samples may become necessary from time to time. Comfrey and Velvet Beans can be used to supplement purchased feed as follows:

Comfrey 20%
Velvet bean 20%
Cereals 60%
Preconditioning velvet beans
- Soak the beans in cold water and leave it overnight
- Clean the beans in clean water the following day
- Boil the beans for 1 hour
- Rinse in cold water
- Dry in the sun
- Pound in mortar or grinding mill
- Mix 25% grinded velvet beans with 75% cereal.

Alternatively prepare feed as follows, reducing up to 20% of feed costs:

Commercial pig feed 20%
Grown Fodder/ swill 80%

Other Alternative Feed Resources to Assist to Reduce Feed Cost

Pigs are non ruminants, hence cannot extract a lot of nutrients from fibrous materials. Feeds with high cellulose content should thus be minimized in pigs diet. When feeding these alternative feeds, commercially compounded feeds should always form the bulk of the pigs’ ration.

Sweet Potatoes vines and tubers

Vines and tubers are quite palatable to the pigs. These do not require any cooking and can be chopped, sun-dried, and used as an energy source for pigs. The performance of pigs fed on dried sweet potato chips, although inferior to pigs fed on maize, offers an additional and interesting option for feeding pigs in the tropics. Fresh vines can be used to replace 10% of total dry matter, (Mora et al., 1991) found that performance of 6 to 12 kg weaners tended to improve, both from the point of view of average daily gain (186 vs. 202 g/day) and feed conversion (2.80 vs. 2.50).

Sweet potato crop, vine and tubers can be used as pig feed
(c) S. Gikonyo, Kenya

Lucerne (Alfalfa)
Lucerne is high in protein, minerals trace elements and vitamins. Pigs readily eat it in green form; it can also be dried and ground to be included in the pigs ration. However, due to the amount of cellulose most of it will be wasted in the digestive tract.

Fodder beet and edible canna
Fodder beets are readily eaten by pigs when chopped and do not require any cooking. Both tuber and tops of edible canna can be fed.

Kales
Pigs readily eat them and due not require any cooking

Russian comfrey
Both the tubers and tops are readily eaten by the pigs. The leaves are richer in crude protein than potato vines. The leaves can be dried and included in pigs ration.

Giant Amaranths (terere)
It is a good source of calcium and iron. The plant is very easy to grow but difficult to eradicate.

Daily Feed Requirements

Fodder crops and swill can replace half of the grain/compounded feeds. About 6 kg of fodder/swill can replace one and half kg of grain/compounded feeds. For Lucerne due to its high protein content it can be fed to dry sows on alternative days. At no time however should the fodder crops constitute more than 50% of the pigs ration. Even if the farmer intended to replace all is compounded feeds with fodder crops, this is not feasible since a pig will not be able to finish fodder equivalent in kg to daily ration of compounded feeds.

Dry/pregnant Sows and Gilts:
Dry sows and gilts give 2.5 kg day of sow and weaner meal
Give extra 1kg/day one week before serving gilts and sows and one week after service.
Give lactating sows 2.5 kg/day of sow and weaner meal for maintenance and 0.25 kg/day extra for each piglet being suckled.
Boars
Give boars 2.0-2.5 kg/day of pig sow and weaner. If the boar is regularly used give it 2.5 kg.
Piglets
Give creep pellets i.e. 0.5 – 1.00 kg/day from day 7 up to weaning time per piglet
The feed should be mixed with sow and weaner meal the last one week before weaning.
Feeding of Growing and Finishing pigs
– Pigs weaned at 7 weeks or older may be switched gradually to sow and weaner diet.
– For growing or finishing pigs all ration changes should be made gradually. If this is not possible the feeding level of the new diet should be low until the pigs become accustomed to it.
– Where post-weaning scours are a major problem, restricted feeding during the fist week after weaning may reduce the incidents of scours.
– For treatment in case of an outbreak of scouring, medication through drinking water is preferable since sick pigs go off feed.

Feeding rates by age and expected weight:

Age (wks)	Weight (kg)	Feed/day (kg)	Feed type
8-10	12-15	0.66	Sow and weaner/starter
10-12	15-20	1.0	Sow and weaner
12-16	20-40	2	“
16-18	40-50	2.5	Finnisher
18-24	50-84	3.0	“
24-28	84-105	3	“

NB: When feeding animals any sudden changes can lead to loss of production. Thus feed changes should be as gradual as possible.

Water requirements

Clean and fresh water should be provided ad lib to all categories of pigs. The amount of water required depends of the ration (dry matter content), production of the animal and the weather conditions. Lactating sows will take 15- 25 litres/day of water depending on litter size. Dry sows and boars will take up to 10 litres/day while pregnant sows will take 12-14 litres/day. Fatteners need 4 to 15 litres/day depending on age. At higher environmental temperatures, the water requirement increases.

Feeding Methods

The methods of feeding to be recommended will depend on the number of pigs to be fed, the rate of gain desired, the type of pig and the amount of labour available. Feed trough use is recommended because it prevents feed waste.

Dry feeding. Feeding dry feeds without water added. This is best for pelleted feeds but there is wastage and dusty conditions when the feed is in the form of dry meal or mash.
Wet Feeding. This is the feeding system where water is sprinkled on the feed to minimize the dust. Strict hygiene should be maintained in this method. Less feed wastage unlike the dry feeding and reduced lung irritation caused by dry dusty feeds.
Restricted Feeding. In this feeding regime pigs are fed once or twice per day. Feeding twice per day is recommended.

Geese Products

Credits: Biovision-Infonet

Feather and down production

This section deals with the production and harvesting of fine feathers and down for use in the garment and household linen industries as opposed to the processing of coarse feathers for feather meal. The most valuable product is the down, which is obtained from the breast area of the goose, followed by the fine feathers. Most commercial products contain a blend of both down and feathers; the higher the proportion of down, the higher the value of the product.

To obtain feathers and down at the time of slaughter, the normal process is to first scald the geese in hot water (60-68degC) for 1-3 minutes. The coarse feathers of the wing and tail are then removed by hand with the remainder of the feathers and down removed either by a plucking machine or by hand. The feathers are then dried and this is normally done in large commercial tumble dryers. For small amounts, the feathers are spread and stirred frequently to facilitate their drying.

On a small scale, geese can be plucked dry without scalding and, although it takes longer, it does yield dry down and feathers. Irrespective of the plucking process, the sorting of the down and feathers can be done by weight in air currents.

The harvesting of feathers from live geese can be seen as an important source of income from geese being bred for the production of meat and from those in breeder flocks. However, it is painful and should not be done if farming to organic principles, keeping high animal welfare standards.

Geese as weeders

Geese are effective weeders because they like grasses but do not like many broadleaf plants. At least in modern times, the use of geese as weeders began in the United States in the 1950s when geese were used to weed cotton fields.

Since then geese have been used to weed a wide range of crops including asparagus, potatoes, fruit shrubs, nursery stock, tobacco, nut trees, grapes, fruit trees, beets, sugar beets, beans, hops, various ornamental flowers, onions and strawberries.

In addition, geese can provide a second source of income in plantations by making use of the forage that grows under the principal plantation crop.

Geese will work continuously from dawn to dark, seven days a week, nipping as new growth appears. They can get close to crop plants without damaging the roots. You can use them to weed areas that are too wet for cultivation, too.

If you teach goslings to eat the type of weeds that grow in your fields, by offering them the plants you want them to focus on while they’re still in the brooder, they will be more inclined to hunt down those weeds later As with any young animal in training, mistakes will occur, since initially they will eat everything green.

This small loss will be worthwhile as the geese figure out what tastes good and what you familiarized them with. Since most adult geese are happy to take young ones under their wing, you can place an adult with the goslings to help them figure things out faster.

The number of geese needed per hectare for weeding depends on the level of weed growth and the crop. For a hectare of cotton, 5-6 geese are adequate.

In addition to weeding traditional crops, geese can also be used to clean up the forage on dikes and in ditches that are difficult to access with equipment.

In fact, it has been shown that white Chinese geese, if properly managed, will readily consume and control floating water hyacinth in drainage ditches.

The management of geese as weeders is simple because young growing geese are used.

Generally, any reluctance by geese to eat the weeds is an avoidable problem. First, farmers should not provide palatable or lush grass to young geese before putting them in a weeding programme otherwise the birds will reject the low quality weeds. Also, geese kept for weeding are normally kept on a programme of restricted feed with any grain being given in the evening.

The level of feed restriction will depend on the amount of forage material available in the area to be weeded.

Birds must, however, be watched because very hungry geese will eat whatever is available and, under extreme conditions, they could damage the crop they are supposed to weed.

As with any extensive management system, shade and water must be provided. The geese can be kept within the area to be weeded either through direct supervision or by enclosing the area with a relatively low (70-90 cm) traditional fence or an electric fence.

The enthusiasm for weeding crops declined during the 1970s with the use of herbicides. However, there is still a place today for the goose as a weeder, especially for the farmers who does not want to use herbicides.

In addition, using geese for weeding has a positive effect on the environment due to the reduced use of chemical weed-killers and because their droppings provide a nitrogen fertiliser.

Although the objective is different from weeding, another low-cost goose production system is to utilise harvest waste. In some European countries it is a popular practice as a complementary feeding programme since it uses material which is both low-cost and which would otherwise be wasted. After being harvested, the by-products of many crops can be used for this purpose.

These include cereals, vegetables (especially carrots) and salad crops where the waste portion of the crops is particularly palatable to geese.

For more information on goose production see the publication by Buckland and Guy. References and Further Reading Buckland, R. and Guy, G. (2002). Goose Production. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 154. FAO, Rome. FAO’s DAD-IS: Information system for the Global Strategy

Handling Geese

Credits:Biovision-Infonet

Good handling of all livestock requires quiet determination. Geese are large birds and must be handled carefully to avoid broken bones or dislocated joints.

To catch a goose, first corner it so that you can easily access it. Then put one hand around the neck near the body, holding firmly. Next put the other hand on the back of the goose, over the wings.

Let go of the neck and slide your hand, palm side up, under the breast and to the abdomen to support the bird’s body. Lift the goose, holding the legs between your fingers to keep from getting scratched and confining the wings to prevent them from flapping around.

Fatty liver production

Fatty liver production is the process of force-feeding (cramming) geese and is unnatural and cruel to the animal.

It is unacceptable in organic geese production because it is not ecological, not fair to the animal, unhealthy and causes stress.

In a number of countries there is also a ban on the conventional production of fatty liver.

Feather and down production

To obtain feathers and down at the time of slaughter, the normal process is to first scald the geese in hot water (60-68degC) for 1-3 minutes.

The coarse feathers of the wing and tail are then removed by hand with the remainder of the feathers and down removed either by a plucking machine or by hand.

The feathers are then dried and this is normally done in large commercial tumble dryers. For small amounts, the feathers are spread and stirred frequently to facilitate their drying.

On a small scale, geese can be plucked dry without scalding and, although it takes longer, it does yield dry down and feathers.

Irrespective of the plucking process, the sorting of the down and feathers can be done by weight in air currents.

The harvesting of feathers from live geese can be seen as an important source of income from geese being bred for the production of meat and from those in breeder flocks.

However, it is painful and should not be done if farming to organic principles, keeping high animal welfare standards.

Fatty liver production

Fatty liver production is the process of force-feeding (cramming) geese and is unnatural and cruel to the animal. It is unacceptable in organic geese production because it is not ecological, not fair to the animal, unhealthy and causes stress. In a number of countries there is also a ban on the conventional production of fatty liver.

East Coast Fever (ECF)

Dr.icow’s Diary

Date: 27.02.2020

Hello Dr.iCow,

My cow has been treated but there is no improvement. Please help.

From: Mercy, County: Kakamega, Kenya.

Discussion:

The heifer has been treated for East Coast Fever – ECF, but has not improved. She could be recovering and follow up treatment is required.

Dear Mercy,

The heifer which was treated for East coast Fever – ECF and has not improved could be recovering from and will need follow up treatments. Signs of ECF show high fever, loss of appetite, weakness, difficulty in breathing and a typical cough, swelling of lymph node and tearing of the eyes. The breathing signs are prominent and always present and will breathe with the help of the belly muscles, stands with legs spread apart and does not like to walk and there is increased salivation.

Please call the vet for a follow up treatment and Catosal injection which contains vitamin B12 and phosphorus may help in restoring vitamin B12, improve muscular efficiency, tonic in cases of weakness and in treatment of phosphorus and vitamin B12 deficiencies. Recovery is possible if treated in good time.

Provide the heifer with good nursing care, give continuous supply of quality feed and clean drinking water. ECF is transmitted by ticks and you need a good and effective tick control using an acaricide. Cattle can be protected against ECF through tick control and by immunization. The vaccine is available from registered practicing vets and animals from 4 weeks of age can be immunized.

East Coast Fever- ECF is caused by a protozoan parasite Theileria parva. One vaccination shot protects the animal against ECF for life. An animal that is treated with drugs for ECF or does recover from ECF develops a very strong immunity to reinfection, at least with the same strain of the Theileria protozoa. This immunity may be boosted by re-infection.

Thank you.

From your friend and advisor,

Dr.iCow

Feeding Geese

Credits: Biovision-Infonet

Rates of digestion of acid digestive fibre for the goose are from 15-30 percent depending on the material.

The digestive system of the goose is able to digest this high level of fibre primarily for two reasons.

The first is its large and muscular proventriculus and its extremely well-muscled gizzard that can develop high pressures. The action of these organs results in the release of cell sap and the crushing of the cells so that they can be subject to further digestion.

The second is the microbial breakdown of fibre in the extremely well developed caeca and large intestine of the goose. This efficiency in fibre utilisation exists despite the fact that feedstuffs pass through the digestive tract of the goose relatively rapidly.

Geese are more like grazing animals than any other type of poultry. Their beak and tongue are particularly well-equipped for grazing. The beak has sharp interlocking serrated edges designed to easily cut and divide grass and other plant tissue.

The tongue at the tip is covered with hard, hair-like projections, pointing towards the throat, which quickly convey the pieces of grass and other vegetable material into the throat.

This rough covering on the point of the tongue enables geese to bite off plants even closer to the ground than sheep can. Because of this, overstocking must be avoided as the ground will become bare.

Pre-laying period

Recent research from a number of sources has shown that the feeding programme for a breeder flock during the 2-3 months prior to the laying period can have an important effect on the number of goslings produced per female.

The results appear to apply equally to breeder flocks coming into lay for both their first and subsequent lays.

The basic principle of feeding breeder flocks during this pre-lay period is to control body weight. The general recommendation is that at two months before the beginning of lay, geese in the breeder flock should have an average body weight of 80-85 percent of their adult weight. This reduced body weight is achieved by restricting feed intake during the holding period.

The amount of feed fed to the flock will then be increased two months before lay so that by a month and a half and one month before lay, the birds will be at 90 percent and 100 percent of adult body weight respectively.

This increase in body weight can be achieved by increasing the amount of holding ration fed and/or by changing over to a breeder ration.

When putting geese on reduced feed for the holding period, two points should be noted: geese approaching their first laying period are normally transferred to a holding ration at between 9-12 weeks of age while geese completing a lay cycle are transferred from the breeder ration to the holding ration at the end of the laying period.

There are a number of ways to provide geese with an appropriate level of nutrient intake during this holding period, but in all cases body weight must be monitored closely.

The first is to give the geese a complete feed rations with 120 – 140 grams of crude protein per kg and 9.6 – 10.9 Mj ME/kg of energy. This can be fed in conjunction with pasture or as the sole ration for geese in confinement. In both cases feed restriction must be practised to prevent the geese from overeating. The normal approach to feed restriction would be to feed between 100-200 g of the complete ration per bird per day. The objective is to avoid any sudden change in body weight and to gradually bring the birds to 80-85 percent of adult body weight by two months before the beginning of the laying season.
A second approach is to replace the complete ration with either mixed grains or a single grain that is readily available. The geese should also have access to pasture since a diet of limited grains may be deficient in some essential amino acids, vitamins and/or minerals. The forage consumed on pasture will normally help provide these. Again, the guide for the amount of grain to feed is based on body weight. If the growth of forage slows or stops in either autumn, winter or the dry period, the geese can be provided with good quality preserved roughage such as hay, silage or root crops.
A third possibility with good quality forage is to meet the entire nutrient needs of geese during this holding period from pasture alone. The body weight of the birds must be monitored. If they start to lose so much weight that they might fall below the target of 80-85 percent of adult body weight two months prior to the laying period, they must receive a feed supplement of either grain, kitchen waste or whatever other source of energy is available.

Restricting feed during this pre-lay period to a moderate level of 2.9 Mj ME per day per bird (320 g per day bird of a 9.2 Mj ME/Kg diet) resulted in a non-significant drop in subsequent egg production and an increase in fertility (4 goslings per female more).

The authors also concluded that a body weight gain of 1.0-1.2 kg per bird during this period of two months is optimal. These results are valid for geese in their first year of production as well as for subsequent lays.

An experiment that examined feed restriction during the lay period to a level of 3.15 Mj ME per day per bird led to a slight decrease in egg production, but an increase in fertility.

On balance, the number of goslings produced was higher with the restrictive feeding suggesting that the nutrient requirement may be different for male and female breeders. However, the very small sexual dimorphism of geese does not allow different feeding programmes for ganders and geese in the same flock.

Laying period

The feeding of geese during the egg laying period is perhaps the most important feeding period in the entire cycle of goose production. Poor nutrition during this period will adversely affect egg production and the low rate of lay of geese is already one of the major constraints in its production.

It must be remembered that the geese must ingest adequate nutrients both for body maintenance and egg production.

Energy requirements per day for the laying goose is between 3.3 – 3.5 Mj ME per bird. Geese are unable to regulate their feed intake according to energy needs.

Therefore, taking into account the energy level of the ration, the body weight of the birds and the ambient temperature, care must be taken to ensure that:

breeding geese do not consume too much energy;
the daily crude protein intake during the laying period should be between 45-50 g per day depending on rate of lay and egg size. Of this 25-30 g are required solely for egg production;
the goose must also consume between 10-12 g of calcium a day, depending on egg size and rate of lay, to meet the needs of egg shell formation which constitutes about 12 percent of the weight of the egg;
the intake of essential amino acids, vitamins and minerals is important and must be sufficient to support both egg production and subsequent embryo growth.

Specific breeder rations have been developed which normally contain 9.2- 10.5 Mj ME/kg, 130-150 grams crude protein and 26-30 grams of calcium per kg. The feeding value of some local feeds are given in table 1.

Table 1. Amount of metabolizable energy, protein and minerals in some poultry feeds

Feed	ME	CF	CP	P	Mg	Mn	S	Zn	Se
Barley, grain	13.2	5.2	11.8	3.9	1.3	19	1.2	30	.11
Cassava, tubers, fresh	15.2	3.7	2.6	1.2	1.1
Cotton seed meal, high oil, high fibre	9.1	17.5	37.4	11.9	6.7
Cotton seed meal, high oil, low fibre	9.4	10.6	45	12.4	6.3	14		66
Fish meal, high protein	16		75.4	22.3	3.1	10		99
Fish meal, medium protein	14.4		70.6	27.9	2.3	16		96
Maize bran	10	12.5	12	3.4	2.1	18		107
Sorgum grain, ground	16	2.8	10.8	3.3	1.8	12	1.1	24	.46
Sorgum, bran and milling offal	9.3	6.4	11.7	4.9	2.4	35		40
Sugarcane molasses	13	.1	5.5	.7	4	74		18
Sunflower, cake	10.8	26.2	27.9	9.2	3.6	35	2.1	53	.45
Wheat, bran	7.8	10.4	17.3	11.1	4.6	113	2.1	89	.5
Wheat, grain	14.4	2.6	12.6	3.6	1.2	40	1.5	31	.28

Some recommends more concentrated rations for breeders during the laying period with energy levels of 11.7 – 12.3 kcal ME/kg, 180-190- grams crude protein and calcium levels of 36-38 grams.

It may depend to some extent on the concentration of other nutrients in the ration, the ambient temperature and the rate of lay.

Breeder geese (6.5-7.0 kg) including the gander, should normally consume between 3.3-3.5 Mj ME per bird per day irrespective of the ration.

Recommended energy, protein, amino acids and minerals in g/kg for geese in laying period
Ration	MEMj/kg	Crude Protein g/kg	Lysineg\kg	Methionineg\kg	Calciumg/kg	Phosphorg/kg	Sodiumg/kg
1	9.2	130	5.8	2.3	26	56	1.2
Breeder	10.5	148	0.66	0.26	30	60	1.4

In most cases, rations for laying geese will include access to good quality pasture. The pasture will usually provide adequate levels of protein and vitamins, but care must be taken to ensure that the energy intake does not drop below 3.3 – 3.5 Mj ME per bird per day.

Free access to limestone or oyster shell must be provided to breeder geese on pasture to supplement their calcium intake.

In situations where complete goose breeder rations are not available, chicken or turkey breeder ration can be used as these will have sufficient vitamins and minerals to support egg production, embryo development and hatching.

If such rations are not available, the next best choice is a ration for laying chickens. Such laying rations would normally have a metabolizable energy level of 11.7 – 12.3 Mj ME/kg, a crude protein level of 15-17 percent and a calcium level 3.0-3.5 percent.

However, they may not be sufficiently fortified with amino acids, vitamins and minerals to support embryo development and hatching.

If complete rations are not available, a combination of available grains, kitchen scraps and forages can be used to try to meet the nutrient requirements of the laying goose.

It is of prime importance to ensure that the geese have access to an adequate source of calcium.

The level of egg production that can be expected under such a system will depend on the quality and quantity of feedstuffs available (i.e. energy intake).

It is important to note that the goose will adjust its productivity (growth and egg production) to the sub-optimal nutrition. Therefore when using an ad hoc ration, egg production can be expected to be between 25-75 percent of the normal rate of lay.

Geese are able to gain weight fast. Commercially reared male and female geese are able to reach in 10 weeks of age a live weight of almost 5 kg.

The development of body weight and the feed intake per week are given in the table.

Age in weeks	0	2	4	6	8	10
Average body weight (kg)	.11	0.82	2.05	3.05	4.05	4.85
Feed consumption per week (kg)	0	0.96	2.93	3.20	4.34	4.68

Brooding period

During the brooding period, a waterfowl starter ration in the form of either crumbles or small pellets is recommended and should be fed ad libitum. These starter rations normally have a crude protein level of between 16.0-18.0 percent and a metabolizable energy level of between 10.9-12.1 kcal ME/kg (Table 7).

If a goose starter ration is not available then a chicken starter ration of similar protein and energy levels can be used. Mash feed can also be used if neither crumbles nor pellets are available.

In many low income and food deficient countries, where feed mills do not exist, farmers must use the local sources of nutrients to provide essential nutrients such as ground cereals and chopped fresh grass.

Such feeding systems, however, are usually protein deficient and can lead to very slow growth.

If it is possible, the diet should be balanced with a supplement high in protein content such as soybeans, cotton seed or peanuts.

The total feed consumption for goslings, depending on breed, for this initial three week period will be between 2.5-2.7 kg of starter ration.

Goslings will consume between 7-8 litres of water during this period. If the goslings have access to high quality forage (rye grass, white clover, cabbage, or even nettles) during the three week brooding period, this could reduce their intake of the complete ration by as much as 20 percent.

When the goslings are three weeks old, it is possible to restrict their feed intake up to 75 percent of ad libitum.

However, where a higher level of restriction must be exercised because of a shortage of either a starter ration or mixed grains, then every effort must be made to provide the goslings with young tender forage either through direct grazing or by cutting and carrying the forage to them.

Fresh kitchen and/or garden waste may also be used during this period. If the goslings are required to graze, then any starter ration or mixed grains should be fed at night so that during the day the goslings will be hungry.

This will increase their forage intake. If feed restriction is practised at this young age, it is very important to keep a close watch on the goslings to see that they remain in good health.

Growing period

The type of feed generally fed during the growing period in large flocks of birds is a pelted waterfowl growing ration ranging from 10-13 percent crude protein with a metabolizable energy level of 11.2 – 12.3 Mj ME/kg.

If such rations are not be available then a chicken broiler or a chicken roaster ration of similar nutrient density can be used. When pelted or crumbled feed are not available the rations can be fed as a mash.

The main advantage of growing of geese for meat under extensive conditions is the goose’s unique ability to utilise high-fibre feeds and thus use a variety of types of forage.

This ability holds true whether the geese are kept under well-managed pasture systems or under less structured scavenging systems.

Under extensive management conditions geese will generally reach market weight at an age older than under confinement. In fact, the age at which geese go to market may not depend on their ability to grow, but rather on whether:

the birds are to be plucked before they go to market (see Feather and Down Production);
the birds are to meet a particular market demand at a particular time.

It is the relatively low cost of the extensive production systems that allows for this flexibility.

Providing geese with access to good quality pasture during the growing period, even without any form of feed restriction, can result in substantial savings with respect to grain consumption.

In experiments geese consumed 34% less grain with pasture access resulting in only 17 percent less growth compared to confined geese. It demonstrates the capacity of the goose to consume and utilize large quantities of good quality forage.

Restricting the feeding of grain in any form while geese are on pasture is a very popular practice and one that is recommended.

It is a practice that can ensure the maximum use of available forage or any other feedstuffs. Almost all kinds of grain can be used in combination with pasture feeding.

Preferably goose should not compete with humans in using grain that can be used in human diets.

In food deficient countries it is necessary to test all local sources of feeds for anti-nutritional factors before use.

The greater the level of grain/concentrate restriction, the more forage the geese will consume and the less selective they will be in what they eat.

If necessary, geese will travel considerable distances to obtain forage. The level of feed restriction that is practised will depend on a number of factors. If no alternative energy-protein sources are available, the level of restriction will be severe and the dependency on foraging and/or scavenging will be high.

Under these conditions, the geese should be monitored closely, particularly if severe restriction is begun prior to three weeks of age. If the quality of the local forage is low and there are no other supplementary feeds, then there may be a need to cut and carry forage to the geese. This forage should be of the highest possible quality.

If good forage is available, then even with small amounts of grain, high quality geese can be produced. The only difference is that they will be ready for market at an older age and the carcass will be leaner than that produced by a high grain (energy) ration.

Even when available grain is not a constraint, it may be desirable to restrict grain intake to maximise the use of any available forage, and a restriction of between 0.5-1.0 kg of grain per goose per week is recommended.

However, to achieve the desired market weight and have adequate fleshing, it is recommended that the geese be fed a complete ration for the last 2-3 weeks before killing.

Depending on the body weight and condition of the geese at the beginning of this finishing period of 2-3 weeks, and the market for which the geese are intended, they may be fed either a complete ration or grain only.

When planting a pasture specifically for geese, it should be noted that they will eat almost any grass or clover species although they do not like alfalfa as much as other clovers.

Geese like new growth, so pasture management should be practised and it should include rotation and clipping.

To summarize, the management of geese under extensive conditions both in managed pastures and under extensive scavenger situations is, in many respects, similar:

the behavioural characteristics of geese lend themselves to extensive management systems because they have a natural tendency to flock and at the end of a day will return home on their own accord;
it is very important that geese are provided with a natural or man-made shelter to provide protection from the sun;
they must have water available at all times and feeders must be built so that the feed remains dry in case of rain;
if predators are a problem, fences and secure housing at night must be provided.

Growing After Brooding

After the brooding period geese can be grown to market weight. In organic herds, they should not be completely confined, but have access to some range-type conditions or a mixture of outdoor and indoor facilities. The growing facility can be simple since these birds are not demanding – a simple wooden shelter should be adequate. The most important factor is to ensure that the goslings are protected from sun, heavy rain and predators, especially during the night.

When they are grazing, geese consume not only grass, but also insects, snails, worms, etc. which can provide about 10 percent of their total protein intake. Furthermore, the strong legs of the goose combined with its aquatic tendencies means it can travel long distances if required to consume forage both on land and in the water. Finally, the production of geese on extensive pasture type conditions eliminates the need for expensive housing and equipment and requires only drinkers, feeders, fencing and shelters for shade.

Broiler type geese, in totally confined systems, can go to market at 8-9 weeks of age at a body weight of 4.0 kg and heavy type geese can go to market at 12-14 weeks of age at a body weight of 6.0 kg. This means that geese produced under these systems are generally not plucked during the growing period (see Feather and Down Production).

In non organic intensive systems they may also be grown on deep litter or on a raised floor of wooden or plastic slats, heavy wire mesh or expanded metal without exhibiting any of the problems of breast blisters etc.

At six weeks of age, the density of geese raised on deep litter should not exceed four geese per square metre, and only three after 13 weeks. For those raised on a slatted floor system, the respective values are seven and five birds per square metre. It must be noted that large geese in hot weather may require more space.

When relying mostly on indoor feeding and using the outdoor area mostly as a run (not grazing a lot),

geese should receive 15 cm of feeding space per bird. If at any time restricted feeding is practised, it is vital that sufficient feeder space is provided so that all birds can eat at the same time. If this is not done, the more timid birds will simply not get any feed as it will be all gone by the time they get to the feeder.

In large flocks the watering space per bird should be about 5 cm per bird. Drinkers must be of a durable nature and should not be large. A drinker 20 cm square and 10 cm deep to contain about 3 cm of water is recommended by some producers, while both commercial hog and cattle drinkers have been reported to work very well with geese. It is important that the drinker does not spill a lot of water. When automatic drinkers are not available, it is possible to use any ordinary container, but it must be filled often to provide abundant fresh water. It is useful to adapt the containers so that the birds cannot bath in them.

Milk Spoilage

Dr.iCows’ Diary

Date: 27.01.2020

Dear Dr.iCow,

I am a dairy farmer. I have a cow that produce milk. When I boil the milk it becomes sour.

From: Edwin Korir, County: Kericho, Kenya.

Discussion:

There is a cow in the herd whose milk become spoilt when boiled. The cow looks healthy though her milk yield has lowered. This has gone on for a long time and does not seem to end. The milk from the rest of the cows in the herd is good.

Dear Edwin,

The milking from one of the cows that is spoiling after boiling it, is because of high number of bacteria in the milk. Milk may become contaminated with bacteria during or after milking and the cow could be having subclinical mastitis which is contributing to the high amount of bacteria or yeast in the milk.

In subclinical mastitis, the cow shows no obvious signs of the illness and no visible changes to her milk composition and her udder, and it is therefore hard to diagnose. Please call a vet to examine the cow for subclinical mastitis and take milk samples to a veterinary investigation laboratory -VIL for analysis, culture and sensitivity tests, and give the cow the right treatment. Remember: The loss from subclinical mastitis is greater than that of clinical mastitis.

Bacteria can also get into the milk by contamination of the udder and the teat from the farm environment, e.g. from beddings, wet and dirty animal environment, milk equipment and the milker. To avoid milk spoilage and for good quality milk please observe good milking practice, cleanliness of the milking equipment and the hygiene of the milker, maintain a clean milking parlour, frequent changing of beddings materials, the manure should be removed regularly, keep a hygienic and clean environment, and feed the cows with quality feeds and minerals supplements. It is advisable to screen the cows for subclinical mastitis regularly.

To ensure milk quality it is important to; – observe strict hygiene and cleanliness, dairy cows should be healthy, avoid long storage hours for raw milking by selling it immediately after milking, the farm personnel should be healthy and observe cleanliness. The milk market demands and offers safe and quality products and prevention contamination at the source by good hygiene reduce exposure of food borne pathogens and chemical milk residues.

Thank you.

From your friend and advisor,

Dr.iCow

Use of Molasses

Dr.iCow’s Diary

Date: 27.01.2020

Dear Dr.iCow,

I need to know how to use or feed molasses to my dairy cow.

From: Joseph, County: Makueni, Kenya.

Discussion:

Molasses liquid feeds can be top dressed on forages, mixed with dry feeds and fed together with total mixed ratios –TMR. Adding molasses and chopping of forages increases dry feed intake, increases digestibility and fermentation of dry and organic matter and improve their taste.

The high palatability of molasses makes it perfect supplement for low quality forages like poor hay, straws, and silages by increasing dry matter intake and also enhances their nutritive value. Blocks of molasses with proteins and fiber, liquid molasses and quality mineral supplements are to be considered in improving a cow’s feedstuffs.

Dear Joseph,

Molasses is a byproduct of sugar production and contains dry matter, sucrose, reducing sugars, fibre and is low in proteins. Molasses usage is flexible in dry and fresh forages and there is no need to add it to specific kind of feed mixture. It can be used as a supplement in livestock feeds as a cost effective and quick source of energy. It enhances the nutritive value of forages and other feeds and improves feedstuffs like hay, silage, green grass and sweet potatoes vines palatability, increase in dry matter intake, fermentation, digestibility and taste.

Molasses when fed to animals help to maintain body condition, strengthens the overall bone structure, improves appetite, lower wastages of feeds and increase milk yields. For better results molasses can be fortified and balanced by adding proteins like vegetable protein meals e.g. cottonseed cakes, and as a mixture of; molasses +urea + water in the ratio of 4:1:6 to avoid urea toxicity. Ensure your livestock have adequate pasture forages when supplementing with molasses.

Molasses based supplements encourage dry matter consumption.

Thank you.

From your friend and advisor,

Dr.iCow

Geese Housing

Credits: Biovision-Infonet

As with all geese, the breeder flock can be kept under a variety of systems. In organic herds, all animals should have access to an outdoor area, and since geese are waterfowls, they should have access to a pond, if in any way possible.

The primary objective for housing the breeder flock is to maximise the number of goslings produced per goose and it is important to have well designed, clean nests in order to get clean eggs.

The recommended nest size for geese is 50 cm wide, 70 cm deep and 70 cm high. Nests should be installed at ground level for easy access and have a retainer of 3-6 cm in height across the front of the nest to hold in the nesting material. There should be at least one nest per five or six geese. Eggs should be collected preferably more times per day to ensure that the eggs are neither broken nor soiled by other geese entering the nest.

In warm climates, the provision of a simple roof over part of a fenced area to provide shade, protection from the rain and a slightly darker and quieter area for the nests may be adequate.

The major disadvantage with such a low-cost system is to keep the geese from dirtying the nests, and often there is no opportunity to use artificial lighting to increase egg production. This, however, would be the system of choice for an extensive scavenging-based systems.

A popular system of housing in larger flocks is deep litter combined with access to an outside yard and/or pasture.

The geese would need 0.5 m² per bird inside on the deep litter and a minimum of 1.0 m² per bird in a yard or run. The geese will graze and forage and can use much more space.

Again, it is desirable to place the feeders and particularly the drinkers in the yard in a way that the litter is kept clean to ensure cleaner eggs. When this system is operated in conjunction with a pasture, a stocking rate of 150 birds per hectare of pasture is recommended, depending upon the quality of forage.

A more traditional type of intensive housing is the deep litter system. For this system it is recommended that each bird be given approximately 1.0 m² of floor space. It is important that the drinkers are designed and placed in such a way that the litter does not get wet. Wet litter can contribute to a substantial increase in the number of dirty eggs.

Lighting programmes

Geese are seasonal breeders with males and females becoming sexually active under increasing hours of daylight. Close to equator, the seasons cannot be formed by varying day length.

The subsequent laying season will last approximately four months with egg production being quite low during the later part of the laying season. In big herds, artificial lighting programmes are used to enhance the productivity of geese, like in other poultry, and can be used to create breeding seasons, although the animals should have at least 8 hrs darkness per 24 hrs.

On small holder farms lighting programmes are not always possible for the goose breeder because of the high capital cost of buildings, and/or the erratic supply of electricity.

This does not mean that nothing can be done to improve egg and gosling production. In the temperate areas of the northern hemisphere, after the natural start of the lay, it is possible to increase the total number of eggs by prolonging the laying period.

To do this, it is necessary to restrict daylight to nine hours per day up to a 25 weeks after the beginning of lay. A simple way to achieve this is to shut the birds in a dark building every evening, and to release them the following morning (the geese must be kept inside in the dark for a total of 15 hours).

This is not practised in tropical countries where daylight averages 10-12 hours, although it would be useful to determine if such a lighting programme would increase egg production in this area.

Breeding Geese

Credits: Biovision-Infonet

The most important aspects of goose production are the management and feeding of the breeder flock as these can have a major impact on the reproductive rate, including the number of eggs produced, percent fertility, percent hatch, and subsequently the number of goslings produced per goose.

The total number of eggs laid per year by geese is very low compared with most other poultry species. Anser cygnoides geese generally have higher egg production than Anser anser geese. But for most breeds, the total number of eggs per year does not exceed 30-50, and sometimes less, even if the birds are under good management conditions.

Furthermore the laying period is highly seasonal which is why producers use artificial lighting programmes to prolong or change the natural laying period. The birds should also have a natural dark period of at least 6 hours to keep them in a natural way.

The selection of the males and females for the breeder flock is particularly important and is normally done 2-3 months before the birds begin to lay (link to sex determination).

For spring-hatched goslings in the northern hemisphere, under natural lighting, this means that the selection takes place in November or December. Egg production in the flock will begin the following February. The following guidelines will assist in the selection of birds for the breeder flock:

the sex of each goose selected must be known;
select one male for every four females;
ensure that each goose selected is identified;
select only geese with a sound body and conformation which will enable them to remain in the breeder flock for 4-5 years;
cull all geese that have any defects such as crooked keelbones, bad legs, crooked toes, deformed beaks or deformed eyes.

In some cases, it may also be desirable to select geese for the breeder flock based on body weight and/or egg production. If body weight is being considered, then all females selected should have a body weight of at least the average female body weight for the flock and the males selected should be 10-20 percent heavier than the average male body weight for the flock.

If egg production is being considered, the individual mothers of the geese being selected for the breeder flock must be identified and the geese (males and females) selected should only come from mothers with a high egg production.

To do this means that the geese being considered for inclusion in breeder flocks can only come from flocks that are in their second or subsequent year of lay so that production records of the mothers will be available.

Sex determination

When selecting geese for breeding, the sex of each goose must be determined. With breeds such as the Pilgrim which are autosexing by feather colour (adult males are white and adult females are grey), this is simple.

For Chinese breeds of geese, the sexes are readily identifiable by the size of their knob, with those of mature males being larger, more prominent and associated with a larger head.

Most strains of Embden and some strains of White Italian can be sexed by down colour as goslings, since the males are lighter in colour than the females. After a few weeks of age, these sex differences in down colour disappear, so sex identification of individual goslings must be done at hatching.

Most other breeds of geese lack distinctive secondary sex characteristics and therefore to sex geese of these breeds it is necessary to examine their sex organs.

However, even though geese can be sexed by examination of their sex organs, either as gosling or as adults, it is recommended that they be sexed as goslings at hatching.

When this is done, a good system of identification is required (see Geese Identification) to ensure that individual geese can be identified throughout their life.

The sexing of goslings at hatching also allows for the disposal of surplus males, not required for breeding, at market age.

It is recommended that one male be kept for every three females to ensure there are enough males to make up breeder groups with a ratio of one male to four or five females.

Vent sexing of day old goslings is not difficult and a little practice will make the sexing of day-old goslings a fairly easy task. This process of exposing reproductive organs should take place under a strong light in order to better identify the sex organ.

If geese are to be sexed as adults, the recommended procedure is that each goose be caught, lifted by its neck and laid on its back, either on a table or over the operator’s bent knee, with the tail pointed away from the operator

The tail portion of the bird should be out over the edge of the table or over the operator’s knee so it can be bent downwards easily.

The operator then inserts his/her index finger (sometimes it helps to have a little Vaseline on it) into the cloaca about 1.0 to 1.5 cm and moves it around in a circular manner several times to enlarge and relax the sphincter muscle which closes the opening.

Next, pressure is applied both directly below and to the side of the vent in order to expose the sex organ. In some birds the male organ is somewhat difficult to unsheathe, particularly if the birds are either immature or not in semen production.

For this reason an inexperienced sexer can easily mistake a male for a female if, after slight pressure, the phallus is not exposed. Only the presence of a female genital eminence will positively identify a female.

Pre-laying period

After the breeders have been selected, they may be kept with other geese until about two months before the start of lay, when they should be moved to a separate flock.

Putting the breeders into a separate flock before the breeding season is important to achieve a high level of fertility. Sometimes, however, a breeder flock formed immediately before the laying period will produce a high number of goslings.

It seems that most problems occur in flocks used to produce crossbreed offspring, especially when the physical characteristics of the parents are very different eg. birds with white and grey plumage.

Setting up the breeder flock just before lay begins can result in fighting, a decrease in breeder performance and increased mortality. Such cases would justify establishing the flock two or three months before the beginning of lay.

In all cases it is necessary to check the behaviour of the birds carefully during the first few weeks that they are together as a flock. It must be remembered that although wild geese are naturally monogamous, with domestication the objective is to have promiscuous geese and thus a ratio of approximately one gander to four geese must be maintained to ensure a high level of fertility.

In forming a breeder flock the objective is to establish a social structure in the flock, so that all geese are mated regularly. Once a breeder flock has been established, they should stay together as a flock for their entire reproductive life.

If the number of geese permit, it is recommended that breeder flocks be made up of four sub-flocks with one sub-flock in each of their first, second, third and fourth year of lay (assuming they are kept for four years of lay). This will permit the replacement of 25 percent of the breeder flock each year.

This is also a good way to balance the total number of goslings produced each year, as geese are much more productive in the second and third years of their life.

Small village breeder flocks may consist of no more than one or two ganders and 4-10 geese. The standard recommendation for introducing new breeders is to establish a new flock to replace the old.

However, this may not be possible with small breeder flocks and instead new females can be introduced as the old ones die or are culled. In this case, it is important to identify the eggs from these newly introduced geese so that the fertility of their eggs can be tested to see whether the gander is mating with them.

When replacing ganders in an existing flock, it is necessary to change all ganders at the same time and to do this at least two months before the breeding season. If necessary, a flock of geese may be divided into two flocks with one flock staying with the old gander(s) and the other receiving the new gander(s).

The management of geese destined for breeder flocks is the same as that for market geese in intensive and extensive management systems, including the feeding management for the brooding and growing periods although sometimes geese for breeder flocks need a higher level of feed restriction to ensure that they do not put on excess fat during the growing period.

Natural incubation

It is possible, but probably not relevant under normal commercial farming conditions, to artificially inseminate geese and in this way produce fertile eggs. Natural incubation produces the best percentage of goslings hatched.

Most female geese, if given the opportunity, will become broody and sit on and hatch the clutch of eggs (generally 10-12) they have just laid. Using geese to hatch out their own goslings is expensive, since geese are not laying while they are sitting on the eggs.

Turkeys, hens and ducks may be used satisfactorily to hatch out goslings — best results will be obtained from Muscovy ducks (which are really geese). Goose eggs can be hatched artificially, but results are better if ducks are used.

Eggs should be collected at least twice (preferably four times) daily, and, as geese lay most of their eggs in the morning, the bulk of the eggs will be collected in the morning.
Eggs for incubation should be stored in a cool room at 15degC — an air-conditioned or refrigerated cabinet is ideal. Turn eggs daily. The longer the eggs are kept over 7 days, the poorer the hatching results.
Select only uncracked eggs weighing at least 140 g and no more than 200 g. Clean those eggs that are dirty by lightly rubbing with steel wool and wiping with a clean damp cloth. Eggs will need to be handled and stored in this manner regardless of the method of incubation.
Eggs can be disinfected by fumigating them immediately after collection.
The actual period of incubation of goose eggs varies slightly with the breed. Some eggs from the lighter breeds may start pipping after 28 days, while eggs from the larger breeds may take 35 days. It may take up to 3 days for hatching to be completed.

If natural incubation should be used, the goose eggs should be set under a broody hen, duck, or turkey for incubating.

If it is known in advance that natural incubation will be used, sufficient broody birds must be identified in order to incubate all the expected goose eggs except for the last 10-12 eggs of the laying season which the goose can incubate. Normally a hen can incubate between 4-6 goose eggs, a duck 8-10 and a turkey 10-14.

The nest for the broody female should be clean and in a relatively dark area where she will not be disturbed. Food and water should be available. Eggs for incubation should be collected and stored as previously recommended.

The eggs can then be placed under the hen, the duck or the turkey when she is broody. It should be noted that because of the size of the eggs, some hens could have trouble turning them.

For this reason the eggs should be marked on one side nd if it is noted that the eggs are not being completely turned, they should be turned manually, to 180 degrees, two or three times a day in addition to the turning that the hen can achieve.

A broody bird may be able to care for newly hatched goslings for a few days. However, the recommendation is to remove them from the female at hatching and transfer them to the gosling brooding facility.

Brooding

Brooding is the management practice to which young poultry are subjected, in for geese, the first three weeks of life when artificially incubated.

The most important aspect of brooding is to provide extra heat so that there will be no temperature shock when the newly hatched goslings are moved from the incubator to the area where they will be brooded and grown.

To ensure that the temperature in the brooding area is stable, it is important that the heat sources be turned on at least 24 hours before the goslings arrive.

Success in raising geese depends to a large extent on the care and attention the young birds receive during the brooding period.

Frequent management checks to make sure that the goslings are comfortable and have enough feed and water is one of the surest ways of raising healthy goslings.

Almost any building can be used for brooding geese providing it is dry, clean and free of draughts and vermin.

It is important to remember that the colder the ambient temperature of the room or building where the goslings are being brooded, the more heat will be required from the localized brooder heat source to maintain the temperature where the birds are located.

Any brooder heat source that can be used for chickens can be used for goslings with the recommendation, depending on ambient temperature, that the number of goslings does not exceed one-third to half the number of chicks recommended by the manufacture.

Energy sources may include electricity, oil, coal, natural gas, propane or other organic fuel. Normally the areas where the brooder heat sources are located will have a protective guard placed around them to reduce draughts and to ensure that the goslings will not stray from the heat source.

This guard need only be in place for the first 2-3 days of the brooding period. A circular area is preferable for this purpose as it prevents the goslings from crowding into a corner.

In areas where electrical interruptions are frequent, an alternative energy source should be used for brooding, although goslings are resistant to temperature drops during the brooding period as long as they do not crowd and smother each other.

When goslings arrive, the temperature at bird level directly under the heat source should be 36-37degC which can be reduced to 32-33degC at the end of the first week and to 23-25degC by the end of the second week.

After the third week, no further additional heat source should be required unless the ambient temperature in the building is below 20degC.

The behaviour of the goslings will show whether they are comfortable. If they are too cold, they will be huddled together close to the heat source and if they are too warm they will be far away from the heat source.

The goose has the fastest initial growth rate of birds kept for meat production. This rapid growth rate, combined with the fact that they are susceptible to overcrowding, means that it is very important that geese have adequate space during the brooding period.

On average, maximum density per square metre should not exceed 14-20 birds during the first week, 7-14 birds during the second week and 4-5 birds during the third week.

Even during the brooding period when the goslings are two weeks of age, they can be let out to graze, provided the weather is warm and it is not raining.

This can reduce the building space requirements per gosling. Goslings should not be permitted out in heavy, cold rain until about five weeks of age, since before that they do not have sufficient feather cover to protect them.

Almost any material can be used as a source of bedding for goslings e.g. straw, wood shavings, rice hulls etc. provided the material is dry, highly absorbent and that it is not easily compacted.

These points are important for goslings as their droppings are moist and they tend to spill water onto the litter. It is recommended to place the water on wire mesh or slats on a frame to prevent spilled water from wetting the litter

In large flocks the watering space during the brooding period should be at least 2 cm per bird and this can be provided by either a circular drinker or a linear drinking trough.

Goslings require 1.5 cm of feeder space per bird which can be provided either with a double-sided linear feeder or with a circular feeder. For the first 24 hours after hatching, it is advisable to provide additional, more accessible feed to ensure that all goslings start to eat immediately. This feed can be put in egg trays which are placed on the litter in the brooding area for easy access.

Cow Teats and udder

Dr.iCow’s Diary

Date: 28.01.2020

Hi Dr. iCow

Upele katikati ya kiwele ya ng’ombe huletwa na nini? (What causes rashes on the cow udder?)

From: Josephat Manyara, County: Meru, Kenya.

Discussion:

After stopping using an iodophore containing germicide one of the cows started to develop pimples like lesions on the teats and the same spread to another cow. This condition could be caused by viral and bacterial infections. Serious infection may take long to heal and in absence of teats and udder disinfection the condition does recur in a short while.

Dear Josephat,

The teats and udder lesions some looking like pimples as you have described in the two cows are caused by infectious agents like viruses and bacteria. This may be a case of pseudo-cowpox infection caused by a virus and presents with a localized, red raised swollen painful lesions, and in repeat infections early lesions are seen as small raised papules which develop in a few days and affected cows may resist milking. Bacterial infections may invade and colonize existing lesions caused by viral infections resulting in some pus.

Other conditions that affect teats and udder skin are bovine ulcerative mammilitis, bovine papillomatosis, dermatitis and udder sore. For treatment use iodophore-containing teat dip like CKL-Mastrite, allow the teats to dry and then apply CKL-Healing Oil to heal the wounds and repel flies.

Affected cows should be segregated and milked last to prevent spread of the disease to healthy cows, to reduce incidences of teats sores, cracks and rough skin by using medicated milking salve, separate milking utensils and provide clean gloves for milking personnel as this could help in preventing the spread of infection to other cows.

Cleaning of the zero-grazing unit, milking parlour and equipment should be done using disinfectant, and proper hygiene and dairy management should always be practiced.

A cow’s udder should be healthy at all times as it produces good quality milk for human and calf consumption. Teat conditions can be mild or severe, and may cause milk shortages to the house hold and the calf.

Some of the lesions may be caused by cuts, bruising, chemicals, inverted teat openings, blocked teats, photosensitivity and sun burns, diseases like pseudo-cowpox, dermatitis, warts and lumpy skin disease. Serious infection may take long to heal.

The teats and the udder should be cleaned properly and disinfectant applied. Lanolin-based and iodine ointments are used to treat teat lesions. To promote good udder health sanitation and hygienic measures must be maintained during milking & in milking shed.